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LOCOMOTIVE 6 

BOILERS 

CARE AND OPERATION 

INCLUDING 

FIREMAN’S DUTIES, HEAT AND 
FUEL COMBUSTION 


VOL. I 

ILLUSTRATED 


BY 

CALVIN F. SWINGLE, M. E. 

AND A CORPS OP PRACTICAL MECHANICAL EXPERTS 



PUBLISHERS 

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PRACTICAL MECHANICS 
CHICAGO, ILL. 









LiSRARY of CONGRESS 


Two Copies Received 

NOY 16 1908 


Copyri^nt entry 
CLASS KXc. No, 


Copyright 1908 

BY THE 

National, Institute of Practical Mechanics 
Chicago, Illinois 













EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 


CALVIN F. SWINGLE, M. E. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 

SIDNEY AYLMER-SMALL, M. E. 
HENRY C. HORSTMAN 
VICTOR H. TOUSLEY 
W. G. WALLACE 
L. ELLIOTT BROOKES, M. E. 
FRANK H. DUKESMITH, M. E. 




PARTIAL LIST 

OF 

AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 

Wm. Kent, C. E. 

Author of “Mechanical Engineers’ Pocket Book.” 

R. Grimshaw, M. E. 

Author of “Locomotive Catechism.” 

Joshua Rose, M. E. 

Author of “Modern Machine Shop Practice.” 
Fred Colvin, M. E. 

Author of “Compound Locomotives,” Etc. 

D. B. Dixon. 

Author of Works on Valve Setting, Etc. 

Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen’s Magazine, 
“Breakdown Questions and Answers.” 

The Air Brake Association, 

Authority on Air Brake Questions. 

Prof. E. R. Dewsnup. 

Author of “Railway Organization and Working.” 



PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 


Frederick L. Meyer. 

Author of “Railway Station Work.” 

C. E. COLLINGWOOD. 

Author of “Questions and Answers on Train Rules.’’ 
F. W. Hallett, 

Author of “Treatise on Telegraphy.’’ 

Houlihan’s Handbook. 

For Railway Employees. 

American Railway Association. 

“Standard Code of Train Rules,” “Rulings on Questions 
Submitted,” “Block Signal Rules,” Etc., Etc. 

F. J. Cole, M. E. 

Author of “Four Cylinder Balanced Compound 
Locomotives. ’ ’ 

Wm. Forsyth and J. C. Muhlfeld, 

Authors of “Walchaert Valve Gear,” “Railroad Men,” 
“Duties of Employees,” Etc. 

Clark Caryl Haskins, 

Author of “Electricity Made Simple.” 

Robert Thurston, M. E. 

Author of “History of Steam Engine.” 


PARTIAL LIST OP AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 


William Kipper, 

Author of Work on “ Steam.” 

Chas. H. Haswell, M. E. 

Author of “Engineer’s Pocket Book.” 

C. W. McCord, A. M. 

Author of “Movement of Slide Valves.” 

S. P. Thompson, B. A. 

Author of “Dynamo—Electrical Machinery.” 

J. C. Trautwine, C. E. 

Author of “Civil Engineer’s Pocket Book.’ 

Angus Sinclair, M. E. 

Author of Twentieth Century Locomotive. 

Wm. Stromberg, M. E. 

Author of Steam Boiler. 

Chas. McShane, M. E. 

Author of Locomotives Up-to-date. 

Emory Edwards, M. E. 

Author of Modern American Locomotive Engines. 




LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS—CARE AND 
OPERATION. 


fireman’s duties. 

One of the most important duties of a fireman is to 
form the habit of being “on time,” if possible. He should 
be on his engine at least thirty minutes before the engine 
leaves the house. He will then have time to get every¬ 
thing in good shape. 

First see that the water supply is right, then the coal 
wet down, cab swept out and windows cleaned, oil cans 
all filled and in their places, and lamps cleaned and filled 
with oil. He should also be sure that all needed sup¬ 
plies, such as flags, lanterns, torpedoes, waste, etc., are 
on hand, and of the right kind. 

He should carefully examine the fire-box to see if 
there are any leaks that would be a detriment to the fire, 
or the draft, thus causing the engine to steam poorly. 

He should also know that the grates are clean and can 
be worked, that the dampers are in the proper position 
and can be closed when necessary, and see that there are 
no openings in the smoke-arch such as poor fitting peep¬ 
hole covers or hopper valve that would have a tendency 
to decrease the draft and' cause poor steaming. 

Another important point, and one in which he is par¬ 
ticularly interested, is that the engine is supplied with 
the proper fire tools—clinker bar, ash pan hoe, slice bar, 
and such other tools as are needed for the proper manip¬ 
ulation of a fire. 


1 


2 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


It is the duty of the roundhouse men to see that the 
sand-box is filled with clean, dry sand, but it is well 
enough for the fireman to have an eye to that also. 

For the beginner, especially, there are a great many 
details to be learned, and he should get in touch with the 
engineer as soon as possible and keep in touch with him. 
In fact, the engineer and fireman should always work 
together, and strive to be of mutual help to each other 
in every possible way. 

After getting the engine out of the roundhouse and 
before starting to take her around to the train, he should 
note carefully that all the switches that he will pass are 
properly lined up and that the track is clear. The engine 
bell should always be rung before starting, and be kept 
ringing while the engine is moving through the yards. 
Before starting from a terminal station the fireman 
should carefully prepare his fire—see that it is burning 
brightly and that it is heavy enough to prevent the ex¬ 
haust from pulling it out of the fire-box when starting 
out. The depth of fire that should be carried on the grate 
bars depends upon the kind of fuel to be used. If soft 
coal is the fuel, a fire ten to twelve inches deep should 
be carried. If hard coal is used, the fire should not be so 
deep. 

When the engine has been backed on to the train and 
it is about leaving time, the fireman should have his fire 
built up so that the coal will be burning in good shape 
with the upper layer in the form of coke, having an even 
amount spread over the grate surface and of sufficient 
thickness to insure the starting and pulling out of the 
train without injuring the fire while the engine is being 
worked at long cutoff. 

Before leaving a terminal the fireman should care- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


3 


fully read the train orders and be certain that he under¬ 
stands them thoroughly. Out on the road he should 
use his eyes in watching the steam gauge and water 
glass, also try to familiarize himself with the grades and 
hills. Some engines steam better with the fire a little 
deeper along the sides and in the corners of the fire-box, 
allowing the center of the fire to be more shallow. If 
there is a brick arch or a water table in the fire-box, 
care should be taken that plenty of space be maintained 
between it and the fire. At the beginning of the run the 
fire is clean, and may be kept a little deeper without 
danger of clogging. 

After starting out it is advisable to move the grates 
a little, not enough to let any fire through, but enough to 
loosen any clinkers or partially burned coal that may 
be on the grates that would prevent a free flow of air 
through the same. The fire should not be allowed to 
become thin enough to admit too much cold air to the 
fire-box, thereby cooling the fire-box below the igniting 
point and allowing the gases, that go to make up a good 
part of the fuel, to pass off unconsumed in the form of 
black smoke. 

While the engineer is pulling out of a station and 
working her up to speed, the fireman should watch his 
fire closely and keep adding a good supply of coal, as 
there is danger of the fire being broken by the sharp, 
heavy exhaust. After a good rate of speed has been 
attained and the engineer has hooked his reverse lever 
back, the coal should be added to the fire often and in 
small quantities at a time, two scoopsfull at each fire 
being sufficient, always waiting until the black smoke 
emitted from the stack disappears or at least changes 
to a light gray color before throwing in a fresh fire, 


4 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


and then placing the coal in the brightest spots. If the 
train is light, one shovelful at a fire is enough. No set 
of rules for firing can be laid down that will apply to 
all conditions. The best rule, especially for a man new 
in the service, is to always be ready to receive sugges¬ 
tions from the engineer, who has passed through all the 
various phases of a fireman’s apprenticeship and knows, 
or at least ought to know, his engine thoroughly and how 
to get the best service out of her. Therefore the fireman 
should always work under the instructions of the engi¬ 
neer; in fact, never do anything while on duty without 
first knowing that it would meet with his approval. 

Care should be exercised in the regulation of the ash 
pan dampers for admitting air under the grates. The 
fireman should study closely the requirements of his 
fire in this respect. If too small a volume of air is ad¬ 
mitted the fire will not burn as lively as it should, and 
if too much air enters the fire-box the gases will be 
chilled. Keep the ash pan clean and the grates will last 
longer. 

As a general rule the fire will burn the heaviest in the 
four corners of the fire-box, along the sides and directly 
in under the flue sheet, this being caused by the vacuum 
which forms the draft being the heaviest nearest a solid 
body; in this case the sheets which form the fire-box 
defining its course. 

The one shovelful plan gives good results, swinging 
or shutting the fire-box door between shovelsfull, and 
spacing the time between shovelsfull, so that the fire is 
kept at about the same degree of heat all the time. 

The fireman should learn the lay of the road over 
which he is firing and fire according to the grades, know 
when to let the fire burn down for a meeting or passing 


CARE AND OPERATION 


5 


point, if they have to take siding, and where to prepare 
for the bottom and summit of a hill and know how the 
engineer is going to work the engine at these places. 

There are other things to be considered in the making 
of steam besides the handling of the coal; the water must 
be fed to the boiler in the same proportion as it is being 
evaporated into steam and kept at about the same level 
in the boiler. 

If the boiler has a tendency to foam and work wet 
steam down through the cylinders, the water level in the 
boiler should be kept down to the lowest possible point 
consistent with safety, and the steam pressure reduced 
and the utmost care exercised in firing to keep the safety 
valve from popping, as this would raise the water and 
carry it over into the cylinders. 

As the exhaust is the life breath of the locomotive, it 
might be well at this point to explain why it creates such 
a tremendous draft. The reason is, because of the vol¬ 
ume and velocity of the steam as it issues from the ex¬ 
haust nozzles. The air and gases in the stack are carried 
out or forced out of the stack by the exhaust, and this 
creates a partial vacuum in the smoke arch, into which 
the air and gases pass from the fire-box through the 
flues. Fresh air is also being forced into the fire-box 
through the grates and other apertures by the atmos¬ 
pheric pressure. The blower operates upon the same 
principle, although on a much smaller scale. It may 
be used to urge the fire when the engine is not working 
steam. The blower should also be used while cleaning 
the fire; it will clear the dust and ashes from the flues. 
If the engine is pulling a passenger train and the engi¬ 
neer is about to make a stop at a station, the fireman 
should, as soon as the throttle is closed, put on the' 


6 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


blower lightly and open the fire door one-half inch, just 
sufficiently to allow a small volume of air to enter the 
fire-box above the fire. This will prevent the engine 
from throwing out a great volume of dense black smoke 
while making the stop. 

With hard coal the proper thickness depends very 
much upon the size and the quality of the coal to be used. 
The larger the lumps the thicker the fire must be car¬ 
ried, as otherwise the large openings between the lumps 
would permit the air to rush in in such great volumes 
as to make it impossible to keep up steam, besides chilling 
the sheets and flues. In fact, if the fire was allowed to 
become too thin, the cold air would kill it. In firing 
hard coal care must constantly be exercised to keep the 
grates near the sheets or walls of the fire-box well cov¬ 
ered, so as to prevent large air passages through the 
grates, as the admission of too much cold air will re¬ 
duce the temperature of the fire-box below the igniting 
point of the coal. The secret of success as a hard coal 
fireman is to watch for and prevent the formation of 
spots through which large quantities of air can pass. 
This should apply to both freight and passenger service. 

In firing soft coal, one of the most important points to 
be remembered is, to shake the grates sufficiently often 
to prevent them from becoming choked with clinker. 

Almost all engines are provided with shaking grates. 
If these are used properly much of the trouble expe¬ 
rienced due to dirty flues will be done away with. 

Some firemen do not think of shaking the grates till 
the fire gets dirty; these men should remember that the 
grates should be shaken often enough to keep the fire 
clean. Move the lever with short, quick jerks to loosen 


CARE AND OPERATION 


7 


up the fire and break up any clinker that may have 
begun to form. 

Spreading the coal evenly when firing does not affect 
the even distribution of the air to the fire, but banking 
the fire certainly does change the draft as much as a 
change in the front end would. 

Firing the coal in big lumps, instead of breaking it up 
to small size, has a similar effect to banking the fire at 
any point. 

One other important point where the firing affects the 
draft is in the way the door is swung. 

Many firemen, who are not in the habit of swinging 
the door shut after each scoopfull of coal is fired, do 
not believe that there is any use in doing so. When 
the door is open the draft pulls the air through the door 
instead of through the fire, or, in other words, while the 
door is open, the fire stops burning because there is no 
air coming through it. During this time that the cut¬ 
ting action of the draft through the fire is stopped any 
clinker-forming matter present will have a chance to run 
together, and a small clinker means a larger one in a 
short while. Besides this, the cold air coming through 
the door lowers the fire-box temperature, so that the 
gases do not burn, and this same cold air often starts 
flues to leaking. 

The proper way to do is to swing the door shut after 
each scoopfull of coal is fired, and the good results ob¬ 
tained by doing this will more than pay for the little 
extra trouble 


8 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


REGULATING THE DRAFT. 

There is a direct passage of air through a locomotive 
from the atmosphere through the ash pan, grates, fire 
and fire-box, through the flues and front end and out 
of the stack. Exhaust steam from the cylinders passes 
through the exhaust passages in the saddle, through ex¬ 
haust stand and nozzle and out the stack, the front end 
being so arranged that the exhaust will form a jet and 
will enter the stack somewhere near its base. This ex¬ 
haust steam passing at high velocity through the front 
end and out the stack has a tendency to carry with it 
the air and gas in the front end in a manner somewhat 
similar to a train at high speed picking up dust and 
papers and carrying them along. 

This emptying of the front end of air and gas simply 
means that the passage of exhaust steam from cylinder 
to stack reduces the front end pressure below atmos¬ 
pheric pressure, or, in other words, creates a vacuum 
in the front end. Whenever there is less pressure in the 
front end than there is outdoors the air from outdoors is 
going to try to get in the front end. If the front end 
is tight, the only place air can enter to it while the en¬ 
gine is working steam is through the ash pan, grates, fire, 
fire-box and flues, creating a current of air through the 
fire-box and fire and producing the artificial, or forced 
draft, of locomotives. 

The draft produced by a blower is somewhat similar 
to that produced by the exhaust steam. The pipe from 
the blower extends into the front end to a point directly 
under the stack, and its end turns up so that when steam 
passes through it the jet will pass up through the stack. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


9 


In order to get proper combustion of fuel the draft 
must be even all through the fire and strong enough to 
give the proper air supply for the burning. To accom¬ 
plish this, certain draft appliances are arranged in the 
front end, and these must be properly adjusted to give 
best results. The exhaust stand and nozzle must be 
placed central and in line with the stack, so that the 
exhaust jet will be properly directed. If the exhaust noz¬ 
zle is low a petticoat pipe is placed between it and the 
stack, to keep the exhaust jet from spreading outside of 
the base of the stack. Sometimes the petticoat pipe is 
left out and a flare made at the base of the stack, which 
serves the same purpose. 

The action of the draft on the fire in most instances is 
so strong that sparks are carried with the gases and 
products of combustion into the front end. In order that 
these sparks may be broken up and cooled off before be¬ 
ing thrown out of the stack, a deflector plate (sometimes 
called a draft sheet or diaphragm) extends outward a 
few inches from the front flue sheet above the level of the 
flues, and then turns down at a sharp slope, the bottom 
edge coming near enough to the bottom of the front end 
to cause the sparks to be carried well forward. A net¬ 
ting is fitted in the front end to prevent any sparks pass¬ 
ing out of the stack unless they first pass through the net¬ 
ting. The mesh of the netting is small enough so that 
the danger of sparks starting fires is practically done 
away with. 

The majority of roads today use a front end pat¬ 
terned after the Master Mechanic’s standard, i. e., one 
having a deflector and a petticoat pipe. With such a 
front end the draft through the flues is regulated mainly 
by the position of the deflector plate; the force or in- 


10 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


tensity of the draft is regulated by the size of the nozzle 
and the position of the petticoat pipe. 

In order to have an even burning fire the draft through 
the flues should be equal. This even pull through the 
flues can be gotten by adjusting the movable slide on the 
bottom of the deflector plate up or down, as the case in¬ 
dicates. If the fire burns too fast near the flue sheet 
the draft through the bottom flues is too strong and the 
plate should be raised. If the fire burns too fast near 
the door the draft through the upper flues is too strong 
and the plate should be lowered to equalize the draft 
through the flues. 

The supply of air to the fire is governed by the in¬ 
tensity of the draft. 

The exhaust jet must fill the stack near the base, other¬ 
wise the draft will be seriously interfered with. 

The petticoat pipe is placed so that the opening between 
the nozzle and the bottom of the pipe is about the same as 
that between the top of the pipe and the base of the stack. 

Speaking generally, if the petticoat pipe is properly 
placed, an increase in the size of the nozzle reduces the 
intensity of the draft, and a reduction in the size of the 
nozzle increases the intensity of the draft. 

It must be remembered that a small nozzle increases 
the back pressure in the cylinders and reduces the power 
of the engine. 

A bridge in the nozzle has a tendency to spread the 
exhaust jet and fill the stack better, giving a better draft 
in some cases, especially on an engine having a large 
stack and a high nozzle. When a bridge is used the 
opening of the nozzle should be increased enough to make 
up for the size of the bridge. 

Raising and lowering the sleeve of the petticoat pipe 


CARE AND OPERATION 


11 


affects the force of the draft, and in some engines where 
the deflector is high affects the even burning of the fire. 
If the sleeve is too high the draft is reduced, and in some 
cases the fire burns too fast near the flue sheet. If the 
sleeve is too low the draft is also reduced, and in some 
cases the fire burns too fast near the door. 




Fig. 2. 


Figs, i and 2 show the petticoat pipe and sleeve in 
two different positions. Fig. 1 shows the pipe and sleeve 
extended in such a manner as to nearly cover the dis¬ 
tance between the base of the stack, and the base of the 
exhaust pipe, thus reducing the opening for the exhaust 
steam to a very small area, as shown by the dotted lines 
which represent its path. 

Fig. 2 shows the pipe raised above the exhaust nozzle 
tip, and the sleeve lowered away from the base of the 
stack, thus allowing a much freer exhaust. The one po¬ 
sition tends to decrease the draft, the other to increase 
it and the point of adjustment that will produce the most 
satisfactory results can only be ascertained by careful 
and judicious experimenting. 

In fact, the nozzle, petticoat pipe, sleeve and stack may 
be considered as acting somewhat on the principle of an 












12 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


injector on a large scale and adjustments be made ac¬ 
cordingly. 

The exhaust pipes or nozzles are made of cast iron. 
Sometimes a single nozzle is used, such as shown in 



section in Fig. 3, having a partition at its base. In other 
cases two nozzles are used, which are generally cast to¬ 
gether, as shown in section in Fig. 4. 

Fig. 5 is a plan view of single and double nozzles. 
Rings or bushings are fitted in the outlet openings of 











CARE AND OPERATION 


13 


these nozzles for the purpose of reducing their area 
and thereby increasing the draft. These bushings are 
made of various diameters and are easily removed in 
order to substitute others with larger or smaller open¬ 
ings as they may be required. If the exhaust orifice is 
too large the draft through the tubes will not be 
sufficient. On the other hand, if the area of the exhaust 
opening is reduced too much the back pressure in the 
cylinders will be increased, thereby limiting the power 
of the engine. It is therefore necessary that great care 
and good judgment be exercised in the adjustment of the 
exhaust nozzles. 



Fig. 5. 


Various devices have been invented for adjusting the 
area of the exhaust nozzles while the engine is working 
steam, but none has proved to be satisfactory, and the 
old method of adjustment when the engine is not work¬ 
ing is still in vogue. A few of the many devices that 
have been invented for regulating the draft will be de¬ 
scribed in this connection. 

Fig. 6 shows a form of adjustable nozzle that appears 
to have considerable merit. It is the invention of Messrs. 

















14 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Wallace and Kellog, two engineers on the St. P., M. & 
O. R. R., and it has been used to some extent on that 
road, also on the Duluth & Iron Range R. R. The de¬ 
vice is automatic in its operation, the regulating mechan¬ 
ism being connected to the reverse lever, or the reach 
rod, in such a manner that as the lever is moved from 
the center notch towards either corner the area of the 



Fig. 6. 


nozzle is increased one-half square inch for each notch. 
It may be set so that with the reverse lever in either cor¬ 
ner there will be seven square inches more of nozzle area 
than there is with the lever in or near the center notch. 

The nozzle areas for different positions of the reverse 
lever are as follows: Center notch, 22 sq. in.; second 







































CARE AND OPERATION 


15 


notch, 23 sq. in.; fourth notch, 24sq. in.; sixth notch, 
2 5/^ sq. in.; eighth notch, 269-16 sq. in.; tenth notch, 
2 Sy 2 sq. in., and in the corner, 29 11-16 sq. in. The de¬ 
vice is said to work satisfactorily and has shown a sav¬ 
ing in fuel of from $59.00 to $97.00 per month over the 
ordinary nozzle. 

Fig. 6 shows a plan and Fig. 7 an elevation, the cuts 
being self-explanatory. 



Fig. 7. 


The nozzle itself is square, and the adjustment is caused 
by two hinged ears which open as the reverse lever is 
moved from center towards corner and close as the lever 
is hooked back towards the center notch, so that the more 
steam that is being used the larger will be the nozzle area, 
and vice versa. 

The De Lancey Exhaust Nozzle. —This is another 
form of variable exhaust nozzle, as may be seen by the 
illustrations. It is the invention of Mr. John J. De 






























16 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Lancey, of Binghamton, N. Y., who describes his device 
in the following words: 

“The object of my invention is to provide a new and 
improved exhaust nozzle for locomotives, serving to reg¬ 
ulate the exhaust of the engines, and thereby regulating 
the draft in the boiler. 



“Fig. 8 is a side elevation of the improvement as ap¬ 
plied to a locomotive, parts being broken out. Fig 9 
is an enlarged plan view of the improvement. Fig. 10 
is a transverse vertical section of the same. Fig. 11 is 
a sectional side elevation of the same on the line xx of 
Fig. 9, and Fig. 12 is a plan view of a modified form of 
the plate 


























CARE AND OPERATION 


17 


“The improved exhaust nozzle is provided with a 
plate B, fitted onto the upper end of the exhaust pipe 
C, which may be double, as is illustrated in Fig. io, or 
single—that is, the two exhausts of the engines of the 
locomotive running into a single exhaust pipe. 


Fig. 42 




Fig. 10. 


Fig. 9. 


“The plate B is provided with apertures D of the 
same size as the apertures at the upper ends of the 
exhaust pipe C, so that when the plate B is in a central 
or normal position the apertures D of the plate B fully 
register with the openings in the end of the exhaust 
nozzle. The plate B is fulcrumed in its middle on 
a pin E, projecting from a bar F, supported on brackets 
G, secured to the sides of the exhaust pipe C, the said 













18 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


plate being held in place on the brackets by nuts H, 
screwing on the threaded ends of the said brackets G, 
as is plainly illustrated in Fig. n. The pin E, after 
passing through the plate B/ also passes a short dis¬ 
tance into the top of the exhaust pipe C, so as to form 
a secure bearing for the plate B. On the top of the 
latter, at its sides in the middle, are arranged offsets I, 
onto which fits the under side of part of the bar F in 
such a manner that the plate B is free to turn on its 
pivot E, and at the same time is held securely against 




the upper end of the exhaust pipe C to prevent the 
plate from being lifted upward by the force of the ex¬ 
haust steam. 

“From the plate B projects to one side an arm J, 
pivotally connected by a link K with a lever L, ful- 
crumed on the outside at the front end of the locomo¬ 
tive boiler, the link K passing through the said front 
end. The lever L is also pivotally connected by a link 
N, extending along the outside of the locomotive, with 
a lever O, pivoted on the cab of the locomotive and 
extending into the same so as to be within convenient 
reach of the engineer in charge of the locomotive. The 
lever O is adapted to be locked in place in any desired 










CARE AND OPERATION 


19 


position by the usual arrangement connected with a 
notched segment P, as shown in Fig. 8. 

“When the lever O stands in a vertical position, as 
illustrated in the said figure, the openings D in the 
plate B fully register with the openings in the exhaust 
pipe 'C. In this position the exhaust steam can pass 
freely out of the exhaust pipe C through the smoke- 
box and smokestack of the locomotive, so as to cause 
considerable draft in the fire-box of the boiler. When 
it is desirable to increase the amount of draft in the 
fire-box of the locomotive, the engineer in charge of 
the locomotive operates the lever O either forward or 
backward, so that the lever L swings and imparts a 
swinging motion by the link K and the arm J to the 
plate B, which latter moves across the top of the 
exhaust pipe C, and part of the openings of the latter 
are cut off or diminished in size, so that the exhaust of 
the engine is retarded, and consequently the draft in 
the smoke-box and smokestack is increased, so that a 
consequent increase of the draft takes place in the fire¬ 
box of the locomotive. 

“It will be seen that the two openings in the exhaust 
pipe are diminished in size alike by moving the plate B, 
and it is immaterial in which direction the engineer moves 
the lever O, as the cut-off takes place either way.” 

Canby Draft Regulator. —Fig. 13 shows the Canby 
draft regulating apparatus, invented by Mr. Joseph C. 
Canby of Orange, Luzerne Co., Pa., and the following 
description of the device is furnished by the inventor 
himself: 

“My invention relates to draft-regulating apparatus 
for locomotive and that class of boilers; and it con¬ 
sists of a smokestack with an adjustable petticoat or 


20 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


mouthpiece to equalize the draft through all the flues, 
also an arrangement of pipes and valves to introduce 
fresh air into the smokestack to dheck the draft with¬ 
out opening the fire door and letting the cold air in onto 
the boiler and tubes, thereby making a great saving in 
the fuel and being better for the boiler and flues. ,, 



Fig. 13 represents the front view of the boiler with 
the automatic draft regulator attached. Fig. 14 is a 
horizontal section of front of boiler, showing smoke¬ 
stack and rock shaft. Fig. 15 is a longitudinal section 
of the smoke-box and boiler, showing the connection 






































CARE AND OPERATION 


21 


of the valve N and regulator O and the connection of 
arm J to the cab K by the rod R. 

ABC represent the sections of the smokestack, or, 
as familiarly called, “petticoats,” arranged with lugs 
D on the sides with slides E E, having slots and set 
screws F F, by which they are adjusted to the space 
required between them, thereby enabling the engineer 
to equalize the draft in the fire-box, as experience shows 
that when the draft is nearest to the bottom of the smoke 



Fig. 14. 


jacket the draft is strongest on the back end of the fire 
next the flue, and by decreasing there and increasing it 
in the top flues the draft is made stronger in the front 
part of the fire-box. This more nearly equalizes the com¬ 
bustion of the fuel. The connecting rods G G are at¬ 
tached to the lugs H, and the arms S S project from the 
rocking shaft I, which is operated by the arm J and rod 

K, which runs to the cab R. By pulling or pushing the 
rod K the petticoats are raised and lowered, thus increas¬ 
ing and decreasing the distance from the exhaust nozzle 

L, thereby increasing or diminishing the draft. The air 
tubes M M turn up alongside the exhaust nozzle L, and 











22 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


are opened and closed by valves N N on the outside of 
the boiler. The valves are operated by a pressure regu¬ 
lator O, so adjusted that they are opened by the steam 
when it passes a given pressure. This operates on the 
crank P and connecting rod Q to open the valve, thus 
admitting air to the smoke-box and decreasing the 




Fig. 15. 


amount drawn through the tubes and decreasing the con¬ 
sumption of the coal, and obtaining the full benefit of all 
fuel consumed without letting the cold air in onto the 
hot iron. By this means we have the combustion auto¬ 
matically regulated, also obtaining the greatest amount 
of heat from the fuel consumed. 















































CARE AND OPERATION 


23 


The petticoat or draft pipe is a very important factor 
in the regulation of the draft in a locomotive, so as to 
have the fire burn equally in all parts of the fire-box. 
Sometimes the fire is inclined to burn the strongest at the 
back end of the fire-box. This is caused by the draught 
pipe being set too low. On the other hand, if the fire 
burns the strongest at the front it shows that the petticoat 
pipe is too high and it should be lowered. 

The exhaust nozzles become at times coated with a 
hard, gummy substance on the inside, thus decreasing 
their area, and the result of this is that the fire is torn and 
cut to pieces on account of the too strong draft. The 
remedy for this is to ream out the nozzles by means of 
a reamer having a long handle whereby it can be intro¬ 
duced through the stack. 

Another device for regulating the draft is used in the 
extended smoke-box. This is a diaphragm placed at an 
angle of 20 degrees usually, although some high authori¬ 
ties advocate placing it at 30 degrees. The gases im¬ 
pinge against the diaphragm, and are thus impeded in 
their passage to the stack, the flow being regulated by 
means of a diaphragm damper. 

One very important requisite for obtaining good com¬ 
bustion and an even burning fire in a locomotive is that 
the exhaust should fill the stack, and not go through it 
like a shot out of a cannon, chopping the fire and carry¬ 
ing with it green coal and a large volume of gases that 
are unconsumed. Close observation and careful work 
are needed to guard against the great waste of fuel 
caused by an incorrect adjustment of the various factors 
contained within the smoke-box or front end. 

The raising of the apron or damper on the diaphragm 
will give more draft through the top flues and cause the 


24 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


fire to burn more brightly at the back of the fire-box, and 
to lower the apron causes a stronger draft through the 
lower tubes and a consequent harder burning of the fire 
at the front. In experimenting along this line, a change 
of a quarter of an inch at a time is sufficient until the 
proper position for the apron is found. 

The following timely observations on the locomotive 
front end are from the pen of Mr. K. P. Alexander, 
master mechanic of the Ft. S. and W. R. R., and were 
published in the May, June and July, 1905, issues of 
Railway and Locomotive Engineering. By permission 
of Mr. Angus Sinclair, editor of that valuable journal, 
the article is here inserted. 

“For much of the data used in this paper I take pleas¬ 
ure in acknowledging indebtedness to Prof. W. F. M. 
Goss of Purdue University, and committee reports of 
the American Railway Master Mechanics’ Association 
for blue prints, reports, personal information, etc. With¬ 
out presuming to give as much detailed information, this 
article is intended to more completely embrace the known 
facts relating to the several parts of the front end than 
any single report that has appeared. 

The “front end,” Fig. 16, includes the diaphragm, 
the exhaust nozzle, the exhaust stand, the stack, the pet¬ 
ticoat pipe, and the netting. These, with the exhaust jet, 
constitute an apparatus designed to produce the maxi¬ 
mum amount of draft through the fire with the mini¬ 
mum of back pressure in the cylinders. The efficiency 
of the front end is therefore the greatest possible ratio 
of draft to back pressure. 

The Diaphragm. The total draft is said to have three 
approximately equal factors of resistance to overcome: 
the diaphragm and netting, the flues, and the fire, grates 


CARE AND OPERATION 


25 



Fig. 16. The “Front End. 























































26 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


and ash pan. As the diaphragm (or baffle plate) absorbs 
about one-third of the energy of the exhaust jet, the net 
efficiency of the front end is evidently increased as the 
angle of the diaphragm is changed from the usual angle 
of 20 degrees toward a more horizontal position, or to an 
angle of probably 25 degrees. Within certain limitations 
the front end is also increased in efficiency by enlarging 
the area of the opening under the diaphragm damper. 
Indeed, it is said that there are foreign railroads that 
have in some manner successfully dispensed with the 
diaphragm and yet secured equalization of draft over the 
entire fire-box. 

The opening under the diaphragm damper must how¬ 
ever, be of such width horizontally as will allow of an 
area of opening equal to the total cross-sectional area of 
the opening through the flues, and at the same time be 
sufficiently contracted to retard the flow of gases from 
the fire-box long enough to consume as great a per cent 
of the gases as affecting conditions will permit. It must 
also be sufficiently contracted, in self-cleaning front ends, 
to obtain enough velocity to keep the front clean of 
sparks. The diaphragm damper, or movable deflecting 
plate, must be set at such height as, with a given angle 
of the diaphragm, will produce a slightly stronger draft 
at the back than at the front end of the fire-box. The 
area of opening under the diaphragm should be greater 
for slow-burning than for free-burning coal, as, by di¬ 
minishing the non-effective work that must be performed 
by the exhaust jet, the nozzle may be enlarged or a 
greater per cent of its effective energy may be utilized 
in producing draft through the fire. 

Draft through the fire in the back end of the fire-box 
is increased by increasing the angle of the diaphragm, 


CARE AND OPERATION 


27 


or by raising the diaphragm damper, also by about four 
horizontal rows of holes punched in the upper end of the 
top section of the diaphragm. As the amount of draft 
is proportional to the weight of steam exhausted per unit 
of time, it is believed that differences in grate area do not 
materially change the volume of gases passing under the 
diaphragm. Contracted opening under the diaphragm, or 
through the grates, probably results in slight cylinder 
back pressure. When the area of opening under the 
diaphragm is enlarged by raising the diaphragm damper 
beyond a certain limit, the angle of the diaphragm must 
be decreased. The effect of wings projecting at each end 
of and below the diaphragm is to decrease the draft at 
the side sheets and to concentrate it along the center 
of the fire-box. The length of the horizontal part of the 
diaphragm (distance between the upper and lower sec¬ 
tions) does not affect the draft in either end of the fire¬ 
box. 

The most efficient diaphragm should give the following: 
Most rapid rate of combustion, slightly stronger draft at 
the back than at the front end of the fire-box, sufficiently 
baffle the flow of gases so as to result in the most com¬ 
plete combustion that the affecting conditions will allow, 
with minimum resistance to the exhaust jet. 

Such a diaphragm should have an angle of about 25, 
instead of 20 degrees. Just below the arc of a 5-in. 
radius bend in the top end of the upper section should 
be punched about four horizontal rows of J^-in. holes 
with J^-in. centers, extending across the upper section a 
distance equal to the distance between the steam pipe 
centers at that height. An adjustable damper should be 
applied, to regulate the area of opening through the 
holes, in order that the proper degree of draft may be 


28 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


obtained in the back end of the fire-box. On the back 
side of both sections of the diaphragm should be bolted 
perforated steel plate with 3-16x1 in. mesh, set with 
slots vertical. 

The object in increasing the angle of the diaphragm 
from 20 degrees (the usual angle) to 25 degrees, is to 
diminish the resistance to the exhaust jet. But, with 
such a change in angle, the four rows of holes in 

the upper section are necessary in order to increase the 
draft in the back end of the fire-box as much as the 
change of angle increased it in the front end of the fire¬ 
box. The perforated steel plate bolted to the back side 
of the diaphragm very materially assists in breaking up 
the cinders as they strike it at an angle, thus considerably 
increasing their facility in passing through the netting 
and decreasing the liability of starting fires. This is 
equivalent to increasing the netting area or enlarging the 
opening of the mesh, and therefore lessens the total 
amount of work that must be performed by the exhaust 
jet. The horizontal plate of the diaphragm should al¬ 
ways, regardless of the height of the exhaust stand, for 
self-cleaning front ends, be located just under the top 
flange of the exhaust stand. In order to get in sufficient 
netting for free steaming this plate should never be set 
higher than 2 in. below the center line of the smoke-box, 
nor more than 6 in. below the top of the nozzle. 

The Exhaust Jet and Nozzle. The most accurate, 
reliable and comprehensive data on the form, density and 
efficiency of the exhaust jet, is contained in the 1896 
report of a committee of the American Railway Mas¬ 
ter Mechanics’ Association, under the chairmanship of 
Robert Quayle of the Chicago and Northwestern Ry. 
The matter in this paper referring to the exhaust jet, 


CARE AND OPERATION 


29 


especially the measurements of vacuum and pressure 
in stack and front end, is largely based on that report. 

The cross-sectional form of the exhaust jet is influ¬ 
enced by the form and dimensions of the channel sur¬ 
rounding it, even though not in actual contact. It is 
supposed that, in the stack, the vacuum around the 
column of the exhaust tends to compact it and thus pre¬ 
vent contact with the stack until it reaches nearly to the 
top of the stack. Whether it is true or not, personal 
experiments indicate that when the surrounding channel 
is within a certain distance of a column of steam issuing 
from a taper nozzle, the jet is apparently attracted to and 
comes in actual contact with the enclosing channel. Ac¬ 
curate tests made by the Master Mechanics’ Association 
Committee show beyond question that the exhaust jet does 
not, and preferably should not, fill the stack at or near its 
base, but that it comes in contact with the stack only 
quite near the top. The foregoing facts should be remem¬ 
bered in connection with calculating the diameter of 
petticoat pipes. The plan of the angle of the exhaust jet 
is not like an inverted frustrum with sides of straight 
lines, as is commonly supposed. Its form, between the 
nozzle and its point of contact with the stack, is rep¬ 
resented by two slightly concave curved lines. It is 
in actual contact with the stack only about io or 12 in. 

Vacuum gauges (measured in inches of water) show 
that the vacuum between the wall of the stack and the 
column of the exhaust jet, at a point one-third of the 
length of the stack from its top, is 1.50, midway of its 
length it is 2.52, and at about 17 in. from its base it is 
3.61. At a point midway between the smoke-box cir¬ 
cumference and the nozzle, on a line with the center of 
the arch, the vacuum is 2.54. 


30 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The pressures in the center of the exhaust jet are, at 
about 12 in. above the nozzle, 59.3; 24 in. above the 
nozzle, 44.6, and about 6 in. below the top of the arch. 
28.5. The gauge also showed that the pressure dimin¬ 
ished rapidly as it was moved from the center toward 
the circumference of the jet, varying in velocity from 
576 to 292 ft. per second. Increasing the number of 
pounds of steam exhausted per unit of time, or increas¬ 
ing the boiler pressure, increases the velocity and di¬ 
minishes the spread of the jet, resulting in increasing the 
vacuum. 

The direction of the gases in every part of the smoke- 
box and stack is from the nozzle tip up toward the ex¬ 
haust jet, and not directly toward the stack. The smoke- 
box gases and sparks are slightly enfolded within, but 
largely entrained by the exhaust jet. The induced action 
of the jet is greatest and the intermixing or enfolding 
action least at the nozzle. It is believed that as the mixing 
action is increased the induced action is diminished, 
with no resulting gain, and that therefore the more com¬ 
pact the jet the higher will be its net efficiency. 

It is claimed that the efficiency of the jet is un¬ 
changed, providing the weight of steam exhausted per 
unit of time is equal, whether the engine is working 
at long cut-off with heavy impulses of the exhaust at 
long intervals, or working at short cut-off with quicker 
or lighter impulses at shorter intervals. The nozzle 
diameter should be as great as affecting conditions will 
permit. 

Increasing the rate of combustion by undue contrac¬ 
tion of the nozzle or grate area results in considerable 
decrease in evaporation per pound of coal. This is due 
to back pressure in the cylinders and to excessive spark 


CARE AND OPERATION 


31 


losses and incomplete combustion of the gases in the fire¬ 
box. Increasing the rate of combustion per square foot 
of grate surface per hour from 61.4 to 240.8 lbs., de¬ 
creased the evaporative efficiency 19.2 per cent and in¬ 
creased the pounds of sparks per hour from 46 to 160 
lbs. 

There is doubt as to whether a splitter or bridge in 
the nozzle is of any benefit under any possible condi¬ 
tions. However, apparently good results have been ob¬ 
tained by enlarging a nozzle equal to the cross-sectional 
area of a ^4-in. or splitter, when such splitter was 

placed in the top of the nozzle at right angle to the parti¬ 
tion in the exhaust stand. Any possible advantage of 
such a bridge would be its effectiveness in overcoming 
the form of the exhaust (in an exaggerated form rep¬ 
resented by the shape of a figure 8) due to the action of 
the exhaust jet in exhausting somewhat from side to side 
instead of exactly vertical, this being due to the deflecting 
influence of the exhaust stand partition and the inner 
angle of the nozzle. 

The most efficient form of exhaust nozzle is the single 
one, with its interior in the form of a frustrum of a cone, 
ending at the top end with a parallel cylinder 2 in. 
long. The distance from the nozzle to choke of 14-in. 
stack 52 in. long, on a 58-in. front end, should not exceed 
50 in. or be less than 40 in., for maximum efficiency. The 
distance from nozzle to top of smoke arch with a 14-in. 
straight stack 52 in. long should not be less than 22 in. 
nor greater than 38 in. The distance from nozzle to top 
of arch with a 16-in. straight stack 52 in. long should not 
be less than 28 in. nor greater than 38 in. The distance 
between nozzle and choke of stack should be slightly in¬ 
creased for the highest steam pressure. 


32 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The Exhaust Stand. The cross-sectional area of 
choke in each side of exhaust stands (when choked at 
all) should at least equal the area of the largest nozzle 
that may be applied. Bulged, or pear-shaped, stands 
are objectionable on account of interfering with the 
free passage of gases from under the diaphragm damp¬ 
er. Stands should be not less than 19 in. high. They 
should have a partition in them to prevent the exhaust 
from one side effecting back pressure in the other side of 
the engine, but such partition should not be less than 8 
in. nor more than 12 in. high, and it should not extend 
a greater height than to a point 10 in. from the top of 
the stand. 

The Stack. For a 54-in. front end, the highest effi¬ 
ciency is obtained by a tapered stack, tapered 2 in. per 
foot, with its smallest diameter a distance of \j l / 2 in. 
from its base. The greater the height of stack the great¬ 
er will be its efficiency. Tapered stacks whether long or 
short, should equal in diameter at inside of choke one- 
fourth of the diameter of the arch. The diameter of the 
stack should be diminished as the nozzle is raised. 

Professor Goss gives the following formula for de- 
terming correct nozzle heights. H equals height of stack, 
li equals distance in inches between center line of boiler 
and nozzle, d equals diameter of choke of stack, and D 
equals diameter of front end. 

Formula for Tapered Stacks. When nozzle is below 
center line of boiler: d=.2 5 D-f-.i 6 h. When nozzle 
is above center line of boiler: d =.25 D—.1 6h. When 
nozzle is on center line of boiler: d =.25 D. 

Formula for Straight Stacks. When nozzle is below 
center line of boiler: cb=(.246+.ooi23 H) D+.19 h. 
When nozzle is above center line of boiler: ^=(.246+ 
.00123 H) D—.19 h. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


33 


The Petticoat Pipe. As a means of increasing the 
induced action of the exhaust jet, rather than as a means 
of equalizing front and back the draft on the fire, double 
petticoat (or draft) pipes add to the efficiency of the 
front end. When the distance between the nozzle and the 
choke of the stack (the top of the arch, with a straight 
stack) is not great enough to make a double pipe practi¬ 
cable, a single pipe is beneficial. The efficiency of the 
draft pipe is mainly due to its forming a longer orifice 
through which the exhaust must pass, thereby augmenting 
the induced action of the exhaust jet by solidifying it, it 
not being essential or desirable that the jet come in actual 
contact with the draft pipe. In fact, the pipe should be 
so large that the jet will not touch it. 

In a 58-in. front end the best results were obtained 
with a 14-in. choke stack, choke 12 in. above top of 
arch, nozzle 45 in. from choke, with a double petticoat 
pipe. The highest net efficiency was when the bottom 
end was set even with (but none below) the top of the 
nozzle. The top end of the upper section was set i ^ l / 2 
in. below the choke of the stack. The total distance 
from nozzle to top of upper section, in this position, 
was 283/2 in. The smoke-box vacuum decreased as the 
distance was lengthened to 31 in., and the back pres¬ 
sure in the cylinders increased as the distance was short¬ 
ened from 29 to 28 in. The double petticoat pipe used in 
above test was of the following dimensions: lower sec¬ 
tion, 10 in. diameter by 11 in. long; upper section, 13 in. 
diameter by 10 in. long. The flare on lower section was 
7 in. high by 17*4 in. diameter at bottom; flare on upper 
section was 2 in. high by 15 in. diameter at bottom end. 

The Netting. No data is on record of the amount of 
resistance to the exhaust jet due to the front end net- 


34 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ting, or perforated steel plate. The total area of net¬ 
ting should be as great, and its mesh as large, as condi¬ 
tions will, with safety, permit; as the open area is con¬ 
siderably reduced at each impulse of the exhaust by 
sparks in process of being broken up sufficiently small 
to pass through. As the direction of the sparks in the 
smoke box is from every point toward the column of the 
exhaust jet, instead of directly toward the stack, the 
netting should be set so that, as nearly as may be, the 
sparks will strike it at right angle to its face. 

Although some railroads use coarser and some finer 
mesh, it is probable that the most preferable is netting 
with 2 j 4 X 2/4 mesh No. ioj 4 double crimped steel 
wire or 3-16X1^2 in. perforated steel plate, with the 
plate set so that the slots run vertically instead of hori¬ 
zontally. The chief objection to the perforated steel 
plate is that it necessarily contains less open area in pro¬ 
portion to its closed area than netting. A point in its 
favor, however, is that sparks cannot as easily wedge in 
the perforations as in the mesh of the netting. 


THE SMITH TRIPLE EXPANSION EXHAUST PIPE. 

This device is the invention of Mr. John Y. Smith, the 
originator of the Smith vacuum brake. In the cuts of the 
front and side views shown in Fig. 17, A A represent air 
passages, S S' exhaust steam passages, and B an annular 
blower, forming part of the nozzle. This is an entirely 
new departure in the construction of exhaust pipes for 
locomotives. Its distinguishing features are that the ex¬ 
haust steam is not restricted after it leaves the cylinders, 
and the gases and heated air in the smoke arch are 


CARE AND OPERATION 


35 


mingled with the exhaust in the exhaust pipe. The ex¬ 
haust steam is thus super-heated and expanded, and a 
powerful, prolonged, pulsating blast is created, which 
keeps the fuel in a constant state of agitation, and pro¬ 
duces more perfect combustion. Some of the beneficial 
results claimed are: Reduction of back pressure to a 
minimum (area of nozzle being greater than the steam 



Fig. 17. The Smith Triple Expansion Exhaust Pipe. 


ports) ; prevention of ejection of sparks from smoke 
stack; almost complete absence of noise from exhaust; 
prevention of formation of cinders in firebox, and a 
large saving of fuel. A reduction of back pressure in 
the cylinders without impairing the draft of the fire has 
long been an unsurmountable obstacle to designers of 
locomotives, but it is claimed that an engine equipped 









36 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


with this pipe will pull from thirty to sixty tons more 
than with the ordinary exhaust pipe. The pipe can be 
used with either straight or diamond stacks, in long or 
short fronts ends, and on locomotives burning hard or 
soft coal, wood or coke. 

Draft in Ash Pans. Area of Openings. This is rather 
a vexed question, and one about which much uncertainty 
still exists but the consensus of opinion among locomotive 
builders, and master mechanics appears to favor as large 
an area for the admission of air through the ashpan as 
it is possible to secure. 

Following are some expressions upon the subject, by 
prominent master mechanics, and others engaged in the 
manufacture, and operation of locomotives. One says: 

“It is my experience that most ash pans have not open¬ 
ing enough to admit of proper combustion of coal, par¬ 
ticularly on engines with deep fireboxes where ashpans 
are only 10 inches or 12 inches from the rail. To help 
this matter, we perforate the sides of ashpan and find a 
decided improvement in the steaming qualities of the 
engines, and we have no leaky flues from that cause ex¬ 
cept when ashpans become filled up, thereby shutting 
off the proper supply of air. If this is not remedied, 
leaky flues and stay-bolts are the result/’ 

“We have not considered the shape and size of the 
openings with reference to the kind of fuel and the 
amount of air space through the grates and I doubt 
whether it is necessary to consider this further than to 
make sure that there is ample provision. We have not 
had much trouble with leaky tubes that we think could 
be attributed to improper ashpan openings. We have 
not made an investigation concerning ashpan drafts and 
therefore can not send you the results/’ 


CARE AND OPERATION 


37 


“We have found that the ashpans of the average loco¬ 
motive built have been given very little attention; little 
care has been taken to see that there was sufficient draft 
under the fire. Most ashpans built have the dampers in 
the bottom and after the ashes accumulate a little no air 
can get into the fire, as the ashes stop up the openings. 
We are following the general rule here of making the 
ashpans as large and deep as we can. If ashpan is of 
such shape that these dampers will not give area 
equal to air space of grates plus io per cent., it is good 
to put aside dampers in ashpans as well, so located that 
heat can not radiate to the driving boxes. Our troubles 
with bad steaming engines and leaky flues have been due 
more to insufficient air openings, causing unnecessary 
forcing of fires than to too large openings in ashpans.” 

“I must say that this is one of the subjects that we 
have not given the necessary time and attention to, to 
determine proper proportions.” 

“As a general proposition, we find it necessary to make 
in our recent locomotives of large size the openings into 
the ashpan not what we would like to have them but 
what, owing to the construction of the engine, we must 
have them. It is common experience that an engine will 
steam better with a generous air opening in the front of 
the ashpan so that when moving forward air is forced 
into this opening and acts somewhat in the nature of a 
blower. In line with this idea, it is noticed when the 
openings between the slats of a pilot are filled up with 
pieces of wood in the winter time, the engine is not as 
free a steamer as when openings are left between slats. 
We have made no investigation on the subject of ashpan 
drafts except that when it is noticed that new types of 
engines are not steaming, we endeavor to increase the 


38 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ashpan openings as much as possible. We have not at¬ 
tributed leaky flues in any way to ashpan openings. ,, 

“As far as I am aware, this is a matter which has not 
received very careful consideration on this road, and our 
practice in regard to openings is not very definite/' 

“Our rule for designing ashpans varies, of course, with 
the different styles of engines and pans. For ordinary 
pans the size of the dampers is governed by the desire to 
provide ample cleaning facilities. Air inlets at the front 
end should be provided in firebox at top to guard 
against leaky tubes. We favor side dampers when it is 
possible to provide them/' 

“On another road, it is the common practice to pro¬ 
vide from one-seventh to one-eighth the grate area for the 
damper opening, where a light, quick burning coal is 
used, while with a heavy, slow burning coal, more ventil¬ 
ation is used. On this same road they say: “We avoid 
making openings in the front of the pan near the top, as 
it acts as a check draft on the flues/’ 

There is burned from 125 to 150 pounds of coal per 
square foot grate surface per hour, and we need 14 
pounds of free air per pound of coal burned. On this 
basis the ashpan should be designed. These openings are 
usually placed fore and aft in the pan, and if more open¬ 
ings are needed they are made in the side of the pan as 
near the top as possible. If ashes are allowed to accumu¬ 
late in the front of the firebox, the air passing through 
is not sufficiently heated and will cause more or less heat 
in the tubes.” 

One reply gave the results of some tests which were 
as follows: 

Compound engine 23 inches and 35x32 inches, grate 
area 50 square feet, damper openings front and back, 5 


CARE AND OPERATION 


39 


square feet. The vacuum in the ashpan corresponded 
to 6-inch water, which, from a table printed by one of the 
blower companies, would necessitate the air to move 
through the opening at a velocity of 3,000 feet per min¬ 
ute, or 15,000 cubic feet of air was delivered through the 
fire per minute. Since the grate area was 50 square feet 
there was supplied to the fire 300 cubic feet air per min¬ 
ute per square foot of grate area or 18,000 cubic feet per 
hour. Assume the temperature of the outside air to be 
100 degrees (it will require more cubic feet of air at 100 
degrees than if it was cooler), then since one cubic foot 
air at this temperature weighs .07 pounds, we would have 
1,260 pounds air delivered per square foot of grate per 
hour. One locomotive builder allows 14 pounds air for 
one pound coal consumption which allows 1,260-^-14— 
90 pounds of coal to be consumed per square foot grate 
per hour. On a test of a long firebox engine on the same 
railroad, figuring the same way as above, 81.6 pounds 
of coal can be consumed per square foot grate surface 
per hour, since the grate area was 34.6 square feet, the 
damper opening 2^/2 square feet and there was a vacuum 
in the ashpan corresponding to 1.1 inches water. 

We made a series of tests on a cross compound en¬ 
gine having a wide firebox and cylinders 22 inches and 
35x28 inches. The opening for the draft to the fire was 
beneath the mud ring and extended the full length of 
the firebox on both sides of the engine, and dampers 
were hinged to the ashpan which could be raised and the 
draft entirely shut off. These dampers, one on. each side 
were operated from the cab by a lever and so arranged 
that the opening could be 1 inch, 2 inches, 3 inches, 4 or 5 
inches, which opening extended the full length of the fire¬ 
box which is 74x96 inches long. A quarter-inch, .pipe 


40 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


extended from the smoke box to the cab and a similar one 
from just beneath the grates and U tubes connected to 
them in the cab, the one registering the vacuum in the 
ashpan being placed at an angle of 30 degrees with the 
horizontal which gave us a longer range of readings and 
half of each of these were taken as the correct readings. 

On the first test made, the ashpan draft corresponded 
to one-tenth inch water, the damper opening was 5.48 
square feet, which allowed 707 pounds of air per square 
foot grate surface per hour, and since on this test 11 tons 
were burned in 12^ hours, or 35 pounds per square foot 
grate surface per hour, it allowed 20.2 pounds of air per 
pound of coal when it actually needed 18 for complete 
combustion. This test was made with the damper open 
as wide as possible, giving an area of 5.48 square feet 
exposed to the atmosphere and two square feet 
more than when the engine came from the factory. 

On the next test the area of the damper opening was 
3.48 square feet, the draft .24 inch in the ashpan and 30 
pounds of coal was burned per square foot grate surface 
per hour, thus allowing 28.2 pounds air per pound of coal. 
The size of the damper openings during this test was the 
same as when the engine came from the factory, and is 
ample for the engine when on local freight runs. 

The fifth test was run with damper opening area 1.32 
square feet when we had 1.3 inches vacuum in the ash- 
pan. Only 29 pounds of coal were burned per square 
foot grate surface per hour, which allowed 22.7 pounds 
air per pound of coal, being sufficient for the engine 
when run in this kind of service. The other tests were 
made with a view to finding out the results of closing 
the dampers at stations when switching, and anything 
else which we might discover. It was found that if the 


CARE AND OPERATION 


41 


dampers were closed on going into a station and not 
opened until just before ready to start, the engine would 
not pop at all, it being impossible to make it do so. 

Thus, it is apparent that if the engine does not pop, 
the fuel is not being burned fast enough to make more 
than enough steam to supply the engine while switching, 
and thus a direct saving of fuel is made, but, if the dam¬ 
pers were applied to these engines to be closed when en¬ 
gine was switching or standing idle, it is safe to say that 
they would seldom be used at the proper time. 

These dampers should also prove beneficial in round¬ 
houses, they being kept closed to prevent the circulation 
of cold air through the tubes, which is detrimental to any 
engine while warm. 

A test was made on a 20x26-inch prairie type passen¬ 
ger engine having a damper opening of 2.5 square feet 
and a grate area of 41.1 square feet, during which test 
there was a vacuum of .88 inches in the ashpan, while the 
coal was being burned at the rate of 56 pounds per square 
foot of grate surface per hour. With the above vacuum 
each pound of coal had 11.6 pounds of air for combustion 
which is not enough. 

The firebox on this engine is 78 inches long, and the 
opening is beneath the mud ring, but it only extends from 
the front of the grates to a point two-thirds of the dis¬ 
tance to the back mud ring, the rest of the distance being 
closed, due to the trailing wheel’s position under the fire¬ 
box. 

On this test there was evaporated 78,533 pounds of 
water in five and a half hours, of which 14,000 pounds 
per hour were used in the cylinders, and, since the aver¬ 
age speed was 32.36 miles per hour, wi:h 68-inch drivers, 
this would allow an average cut-off of 19 per cent. As 


42 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


this was a lighter train than the engine will comfortably 
handle, it is safe to assume that sometimes the cut-off 
will be increased to one-half or three-fourths for quite a 
period of time, and it is quite correct to base the maxi¬ 
mum steam consumption on three-fourths cut-off at io 
miles per hour, then, by figuring the weight of steam 
used per hour and assume that seven pounds of water are 
evaporated per pound of coal, we will have the number 
of pounds of coal burned per hour, which, multiplied by 
18 and divided by 60, gives us the number of pounds of 
air required per minute for complete combustion. 

One locomotive builder gave the average on five dif¬ 
ferent orders of locomotives built for as many different 
roads as follows: 

Ratio ashpan opening to flues .946, and ratio ashpan 
to cylinder volume 131. The ratio of the ashpan openings 
to the cylinder volume is probably a better basis to work 
from than the ratio to the flue area since the draft re¬ 
sulting from the action of the exhaust jet is nearly pro¬ 
portional to the weight of steam exhausted per unit of 
time. 

Prof. Goss has contributed some valuable thoughts 
upon this subject of air spaces under locomotive grates. 
Among other things, he says: “I think that one view 
of the ashpan problem might well embrace the whole ap¬ 
paratus which controls the movement of air from the out¬ 
side atmosphere through the mechanism of the engine and 
back into the atmospheric air. If you consider that course 
you will find that there is first the front end, taking it in 
reverse order, then the flues, then the grate, and then 
the ashpan. Now, this movement is stimulated by the 
action of the exhaust jet, and evidently if any of the ele¬ 
ments that I have named is unduly constrained, then the 


CARE AND OPERATION 


43 


exhaust jet will be called upon to do more work than it 
otherwise would be called upon to do, to overcome the 
constrained condition. So, if the opening in the ashpan 
is small, evidently we must compensate for that small 
size opening by doing a larger amount of work with 
the exhaust jet, and if we are endeavoring to 
get the highest efficiency in all parts of the engine, 
of course we must not have constrained areas where they 
are avoidable. Evidently the tube area we can not change 
materially. That is a factor which is fixed by the general 
design and proportions of the engine, and we must make 
our draft act through the tubes at whatever cost. But 
we do have very great freedom in controlling the opening 
in the ashpan, and there we should not impose a duty 
upon the exhaust jet which we can avoid. There are 
really three ways in which we can check the draft action. 
We can do it by modifying the exhaust jet; we can do 
it by modifying the thickness of the fire; we can do it 
by modifying the area of the opening in the ashpan. I 
think it is quite true that if engines were always to work 
at their maximum capacity, our best results would come 
to us when there were no ashpans, if such a thing were 
practicable.” 

(Locomotive Firemen’s Magazine) 

Extension Front Ends. It is not unusual to find cin¬ 
ders piled up next the front flue sheet, blocking the lower 
flues. This is obviously caused by little or no draft 
through the bottom flues, and calls for an inspection of 
them to see whether they are not stopped up. Unless it 
is known that the cause of the insufficient draft is too 
large a nozzle it is better to examine for each of the 
causes mentioned before making the nozzle smaller. 


44 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The shape, angle and position of the deflector has a 
great deal to do with the proper draft. It should be far 
enough from the flue sheet to give plenty of room for all 
the products of combustion that can possibly come 
through the flues, to pass away from the flues and down 
to the lower edge of the deflector without any crowding. 
Possibly the large amount of space where the deflector 
is placed ahead of the steam and exhaust pipes has 
something to do with engines with deflectors arranged 
this way being good steamers. 

It is not unusual to drill or punch the deflector at the 
part next the top rows of flues with a large number of 
small holes about one-fourth inch in diameter. This will 
allow a portion of the gases to pass through and stop the 
cinders, turning them down to the bottom of the smoke 
arch. 

The netting, when very fine, or when a large propor¬ 
tion of the meshes are closed up with cinders jammed in 
them, can cause a great obstruction of the draft. Thus 
a coarse mesh netting will cause less obstruction to the 
draft than a finer one, but as long as the laws of safety 
in regard to fires being set by live, blazing cinders thrown 
out of the smokestacks require that these cinders be kept 
in the front end till they are harmless, we will be obliged 
to use netting that will hold them back. This requires 
a fine mesh, and of course a much greater amount of 
vacuum in that part of the smoke arch above the netting 
than below it, in order to pull the gases through the 
netting. 

What is known as 2^ mesh netting—that is, having 
2]/2 meshes to the inch, and made with wire .125 inch in 
diameter—will have in one square foot of netting an 
area of wire of 75.9 square inches. This subtracted from 


CARE AND OPERATION 


45 


144 square inches leaves 68.1 square inches as the total 
area of the openings in netting of this mesh, or 47.3 per 
cent, of the whole area. 

There are several obstructions to the free passage of 
the air from outside the ashpan to the space around the 
jet of exhaust steam. First, the ashpan, which may have 
insufficient damper openings, or it may be so filled with 
ashes that there is no room for a proper supply of air to 
get by. Next the grates, then the bed of coal, and in some 
cases the ashes on the grates. This requires considerable 
pull on the air. Next, the resistance offered by the flues, 
which is increased if any of them are choked up. Then 
comes the change of direction after leaving the flues and 
passing under the edge of the apron with force enough 
to sweep out the cinders that drop on the bottom of the 
smoke arch. A change of direction of the flow of gases 
absorbs power, just the same as it does with liquids, 
although this fact is not given the credit it should have. 
Lastly, the netting, which probably gives as great ob¬ 
struction to the flow of the gases as any of the causes 
mentioned. 

The usual method of measuring the force of the draft, 
or the amount of vacuum produced by the exhaust, and 
its effect at the various points between the ashpan and the 
stack is to connect one end of a U-shaped tube to the 
smoke arch, leaving the other end open to the atmosphere. 
This tube is party filled with water. When the exhaust 
or blower is not at work the level of the water will be 
alike in both legs of the U tube, and the variation of the 
levels is a measure of the pressure or vacuum in the 
smoke arch. Ordinarily this difference in level is from 
to 4 inches of water with an engine properly drafted 
and this difference in levels is greatest at or in the stack, 


46 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


next greatest in the front end above the netting, then be¬ 
low the netting, and so on till we get back to the ashpan. 

The effect of the exhaust steam depends, first, on the 
volume of steam passing away from the cylinders, and 
next on its velocity after leaving the nozzle. From this 
it is seen that a cylinder full of steam at high pressure 
will produce more draft than the same cylinder full of 
steam at a low pressure, and that with an early exhaust 
the pressure is likely to be higher than with a late ex¬ 
haust, from the same point of cut-off. Giving an engine 
more lead will make the exhaust earlier in the stroke of 
the piston, and thus exhaust the steam at a higher pres¬ 
sure. This is a point well worth remembering—that 
changing the distribution of the steam in the cylinder 
can change the pull on the fire that is created by the ex¬ 
haust steam. Varying the amount of clearance at the 
ends of the cylinder and in the exhaust port has been 
known to make considerable difference in the amount of 
steam used each stroke. Many have an idea that this 
space can be filled with steam under compression up to 
about the steam chest pressure. This, of course, requires 
an earlier exhaust closure of the main steam valve. 

A locomotive is said to be a good steamer when the 
boiler can make more steam than the engine needs to 
draw the full train. It is evident that if the boiler makes 
only a little more than the engine uses the pressure will 
be held up. Now if the engine is extravagant in its use 
of steam it may be beyond the possible capacity of the 
boiler to supply it. Such a locomotive is usually very 
wasteful of water, and by the unusual amount taken to 
do the work the probable defect in a poor steaming 
locomotive may be located. 

There are many theories for the drafting of a loco- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


47 


motive boiler; some of them are shown to be correct 
when put into practical operation; others are of no avail. 
For this reason many locomotives have to be drafted on 
the “change and try” method till the trouble is found by 
the effects of the remedy applied. One locomotive may 
be drafted after a certain plan and give the best results, 
while another one of the same size and type, running on 
the same trains, will need some other changes to make 
it a success. 

Very often this is because superficial observation seems 
to show that they are exactly alike, when tests closely 
made of drafting arrangements and the steam distribu¬ 
tion would show that they are essentially different in some 
important particular. 

The proper method when making changes in the draft¬ 
ing arrangements in order to make an engine a good 
steamer is to make only one change at a time and note the 
effect. If more than one change is made it may be impos¬ 
sible to tell which one of the changes is a move in the 
right direction and which one is wrong. First see if the 
ashpan will admit sufficient air; then see if the grates 
have enough air opening; then note if all the flues are 
clear; and last if the netting is clean. 

STANDARD SMOKE BOX FRONT, PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 

In standardizing the locomotive equipment on the 
Pennsylvania Railroad, the treatment of smoke box fronts 
and doors is noteworthy as representing a departure from 
the usual practice. The various sizes and styles of fronts 
adapted to the different classes of locomotives have been 
discarded, and a special design of front substituted that 
can be fitted to any class. 


48 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The standard front is shown in the illustration (Fig. 
17a) and while it does not present any special feature of 
design, the method employed in applying it to the smoke 



Fig. 17-a. Standard Smoke Box Front and Door.—Pennsylvania 
Railroad. 


boxes of various diameters is original and interesting. 
The front is made of ^2-inch pressed steel and sufficiently 




















































CARE AN D OPERATION 


49 


large to fit a smoke box 82 inches in diameter, which is 
the largest on the Pennsylvania system. For smoke boxes 
of smaller diameters, the front is cut down in a boring 
mill to suit the sizes of the various classes of locomotives, 
according to tables provided for this purpose. The out¬ 
side bolts are laid off from a templet and drilled and the 
front is then applied in the usual manner. 

The front is adaptable to all smoke boxes from 82 
inches down to 63 inches in diameter and the sizes given 
include the principal classes of locomotives on the Penn¬ 
sylvania system. 

It is apparent that this plan presents a number of 
advantages over the usual method. Only one die is neces¬ 
sary for pressing plates, a provision which simplifies work 
in the flanging room, and has the further advantage of 
reducing the number of fronts carried in stock at the 
various shops and store houses. 

An improvement in the general appearance of locomo¬ 
tives in so far as symmetry is concerned, is obtained by 
fitting them with fronts and doors of the same design. 
The method offers an advantage in obtaining fronts for 
disabled locomotives at outlying roundhouses, as the 
front desired can be sent finished from the main shop on 
receipt of information stating the class of locomotive 
the front is wanted for. It is obvious that in building 
new locomotives the method can be successfully applied 
with a saving of both time and expense. 

Grate Bars. The grate bars being a part of the engine 
in which the fireman is particularly interested, a brief 
description of a few of the leading types will be given. 

The old-fashioned grate bars for burning wood are too 
familiar to need describing, being simply plain cast iron 
stationary bars with narrow slots between them. For 


50 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


soft coal various styles of rocking grates are used. F.gs. 
1 8 and 19 show plan and sectional views of rocking 
grates. The method of shaking is also illustrated in Fig. 
19, together with the dump grate at the front to be used 
when cleaning the fire. For burning hard coal a larger 
grate area is required than with soft coal, for the reason 




that a hard coal fire must be kept more shallow than a 
soft coal fire. The grate for hard coal is long, and in¬ 
stead of being made of cast iron it consists of horizontal 
wrought iron water tubes in connection with the water 
space, thus permitting a free circulation of water through 
them. This plan not only prevents the grates from burn- 




















































CARE AND OPERATION 


51 


ing out, but it also serves to utilize a portion of heat that 
would otherwise be wasted. 

Fig. 20 shows a plan and Fig. 21 an elevation of a set 
of water grates. Provision is made for drawing or 
cleaning the fire, by making every fourth or fifth tube 
solid and allowing it to project clear through both walls 
of the back end of the fire-box through thimbles inserted 



Fig. 19. 


for that purpose. These solid tubes have rings on their 
back ends by which they may be withdrawn, and the 
front end rests upon a bearing bar. 

The tubes of a water grate are made water-tight by 
being caulked into the inside sheet at the front and back 
ends of the fire-box. 

About twenty square feet of grate surface is needed to 
burn one ton of soft coal per hour. 

When the fire becomes dull and heavy, caused by ashes 
accumulating on the grate bars, the grates should be 








































52 


locomotive boilers 


shaken up, which is best done while the engine is working 
at a moderate speed, or at least when the blower is on. 



Fig. 20. 



1 

! 

o o o o 1 

o o o o 

HIM 

Bi 

o o o o o 

OO'OOOC 

A n o n 

1 o o o o 

booooo 

[o O 0 o o 

sen; 


U U U V v 

i-1 




O 

o 

"o“ 


o o o 
o o o 
"o C C 


Fig. 21. 


o 

o 

T7 


O 

o 

TT 



The ash pan should be kept clean and free from ashes. 
This will allow a free draft of air and prevent the burning 
out of the grate bars. 





















































LABOR SAVING DEVICES FOR THE FIREMAN. 

BREWER PNEUMATIC FIRE DOOR OPENER. 

The occupation of locomotive firemen is one requiring 
a great deal of exercise, especially if the engine is on a 
long freight run, and consuming 15 to 20 tons of coal 
on a run. Some expert has calculated that for each ton 
of coal that is shoveled into the fire-box with a No. 4 
scoop (holding on an average 17 pounds of coal), the 
fireman is required to make 585 distinct movements, as 
for instance, with each scoopful there are five movements 
divided up as follows: 

1. Filling the shovel with coal. 

2. Opening the door. 

3. Picking up the shovel. 

4. Throwing the coal into the fire-box. 

5. Closing the door. 

Therefore the burning of ten tons of coal requires 5,850 
distinct movements on the part of the fireman, and 
twenty tons would necessitate 11,700 movements in order 
to place it where it would do the “most good/’ Any de¬ 
vice that will tend to save some of this hard labor should 
certainly be warmly welcomed by the fireman. The 
Brewer Pneumatic Door Opener appears to be deservedly 
working its way to the front as not only a labor saver, 
but also a fuel saver, and by its action in opening and 
closing the firedoor almost instantaneously it also pro¬ 
tects the flues, as it prevents the large volume of cold air 
from entering the fire-box with each shovelful of coal, 
53 






LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



Fig. 22. Brewer Pneumatic Door Opener, Full View. 
























CARE AND OPERATION 


55 


which is unavoidable with the old style method of open¬ 
ing the door. The sudden cooling of the back ends of 
the flues is thus, to a large extend prevented, while at 
the same time the single shovel system of firing is 
insured. 

The apparatus is simple and durable, having very few 
parts, and therefore does not easily get out of order. It 
is clearly shown in the accompanying illustrations, which 
are self-explanatory. The quantity of air required to 
operate it is very small, almost imperceptible. It consists 
of a small horizontal air cylinder directly underneath the 
door. This cylinder is fitted with a piston, the rod of 
which is connected by means of a link and short arm or 
crank to the pivot upon which the door swings. The 
motion of the door in opening or closing is very rapid, 
but the door does not slam, as there is always a cushion 
of air to prevent this. The door is opened by simply 
placing the foot upon the treadle or trip shown on the 
deck. This action opens the air valve, admitting air to 
the cylinder, thus forcing the piston to move towards the 
right. To close the door, remove the foot from the trip, 
allowing the air behind the piston to escape. This per¬ 
mits the door to swing shut. This device is being used 
quite extensively on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific 
and other roads. 

Fig. 22 shows a full view of this device, and Fig. 23 
shows sectional front and side views. 

THE BATES FIRE-BOX DOOR. 

To make clear the action of this door, it should first 
be said that a shield or deflector is projected downwardly 
and into the fire-box from the upper portion of the door, 


56 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



Fig. 23 . Brewer Pneumatic Door Opener, Sectional, Front and Side Views. 














































































































CAKE AND OPERATION 


57 


and that there is also a similar, but shorter, deflector 
from about the mid-height of the door to prevent coal 
from lodging in the furnace doorway. It is clear that 
the purpose of these deflectors is to insure the delivery 



Fig. 24. 

of the coal and also to direct the air currents in their 
passage into the fire-box. Fig. 24 shows the door with 
the upper half A opened and in the usual running posi¬ 



ng. 25 . 


tion. The air deflector B is also well illustrated. The 
firing is done through the opening shown and a small 
scoop is used. This open position of the upper half of 





58 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the door is maintained at all times, except when the fire 
is cleaned at the end of the run. Fig. 25 shows the entire 
door swung open as for the last-named service, and also 
shows the lower deflector at the middle of the door, 
earlier referred to. 

In firing with this door coal must be used in small 
quantities, at comparatively short intervals, and it is 
necessary to use a brick arch. With these arrangements 
the introduction of oxygen, mingling with the gases, pro¬ 
duces an increased efficiency, due to the consumption of 
what is commonly the waste products—the gases—and 
strong testimonials from well-known superintendents of 
motive power and also from engine crews who have used 
the door have been received. The saving in fuel and the 
betterment of steaming qualities of the boiler, as well as 
the almost total absence of black smoke, are well attested. 
The device has been used on Southern Pacific locomo¬ 
tives for several years, and more than 500 locomotives on 
the road now have it. It is also being used on many 
other roads. 

A striking instance of economy brought about by the 
use of this door has been called to our attention. On one 
road having a number of consolidation engines that did 
not steam up to their duty, an estimate for remodeling 
the fire-boxes of all of them indicated that an outlay of 
several thousand dollars would be necessary. The Bates 
fire door was tried before the work of remodeling was 
undertaken, and it worked so well that there was no 
longer any difficulty in making steam, and the fire-boxes 
were therefore not remodeled. A point in favor of this 
device is its cheapness and simplicity. It can readily be 
fitted to any size or shape of fire door opening, and where 
a fire-brick arch is already in use no alteration of the fire- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


59 


box is necessary, but it is necessary that the brick arch 
be kept in close contact with the sides of the fire-box, in 
order to obtain the best results. The reason for this is 
clear. 


THE MECHANICAL STOKER. 

The following plain, sensible remarks upon the subject 
of mechanical stokers for locomotives are copied from an 
article published in the Railroad Gazette in 1905. We 
quote: 

“Railroad men and those interested in railroad work 
have for some time been asking themselves and each 
other as to the probable upper limit of size in locomotive 
construction. Matters have gone forward with such leaps 
and bounds during the past twenty-five years that one 
has been obliged to be on the alert in order to keep in 
touch with the advancement that has been made. Loco¬ 
motives with from three to three and a half times the 
heating surface of the ordinary practice of the early 
eighties are now so common as to attract hardly a passing 
notice, and no one feels sure that the end has come. 

In all of this growth, we have heard much of the 
strength of material,, the efficiency of heating surface, the 
proper loading of bridges and track and the economy of 
high steam pressures and heavy loads, but hardly a word 
about the man. 

Unfortunately, he remains the same as in the days of 
small engines, while the only consideration that he has 
received is in the limitation of the length of the fire-box ! 
Practical working with extra long fire-boxes showed 
them to be impossible when considered from the physical 
standpoint of the man; firemen were found to be incapa- 


60 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ble of throwing coal to the front of such a box with any 
certainty of placing it where it was needed. So there 
has been a limit placed upon the length of this part, 
though in other respects the modern locomotive seems 
to have been developed regardless of the man who is to 
feed its furnace. 

The fatigue of those who fire large engines over a 
long division and the complaints arising from this over¬ 
exertion have been so pronounced that the subject of 
placing three men on these engines has not only been 
seriously considered by railroad men, but has been ag¬ 
gressively demanded by the labor organizations. The 
matter has already been brought to the attention of the 
legislatures of Indiana and Ohio, with the view of making 
it a legal requirement that two firemen be used on such 
machines. The railroads object to this for the reasons 
that the second man will increase the expense and proba¬ 
bly decrease the efficiency of the whole crew. The argu¬ 
ment of the men is, however, a potent one, that the work 
demanded is more than the average fireman can perform. 

That there is much of truth in this there can be no 
doubt. Just what the railroad companies lose by this 
over-exertion of the men no one knows, though it would 
be interesting to determine the difference in the total effi¬ 
ciency of the locomotive between the first ten and the 
last ten miles of a hundred and fifty-mile run, attributa¬ 
ble to the loss of efficiency or fatigue of the man. At any 
rate, the railroads are being pressed to put a larger crew 
on the big engines. Their saving defense will be that 
more than two men are not needed, and to prove this 
latter point the assistance of some form of mechanical 
stoker will have to be invoked. For many years the air 
has been full of talk and speculation about the availabil- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


61 


ity of such a device, and one or two forms have been 
tried, with more or less success, in an experimental way, 
but no road as yet has either adopted one or made an 
application on a large scale. 

The prospects are, however, that the preliminary* work 
along these lines is emerging from the tentative and ex¬ 
perimental and entering upon the practical stage of de¬ 
velopment, when the mechanical stoker may be expected 
to work with all the reliability of the injector, or the air 
brake, or any of the other attachments that in their day 
have passed through the disheartening period of experi¬ 
mental work. In what the stoker is now doing, it has 
been demonstrated that it is capable of distributing the 
coal evenly over the surface of a large fire-box; of main¬ 
taining steam pressure under a wide range of require¬ 
ments, and of picking up a pressure that has been lost 
through inattention on the part of the fireman. That it 
is successful on these points there is ample proof. It 
might win out on all of these counts, however, and still 
fall far short of being a commercial or mechanical suc¬ 
cess, if it added to the labors of the fireman, or wasted 
coal. 


THE VICTOR LOCOMOTIVE STOKER. 

The Victor Locomotive Stoker is the successor to the 
Kincaid Locomotive Stoker, which was invented by Mr. 
John Kincaid, who was for many years an engineer on 
the Chesapeake & Ohio R. R. 

Necessity is, and always will be, the “mother of inven¬ 
tion.” Conditions arise which can only be met with ap¬ 
proved ideas and approved methods, and the increased 
traffic, both in the freight and passenger service of all 


62 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the prominent railways, has necessitated heavy power en¬ 
gines of approved types and enormous size, in order to 
accomplish desired results. In fact, the engines have 
grown beyond the capabilities of the firemen, and as the 
latter could not be reconstructed or endowed with greater 
strength and endurance, mechanical means became the 
only logical solution of the problem. 

To meet these conditions, and to relieve the fireman of 
the severe and exhaustive drudgery imposed upon him, 
the inventor, himself a Brotherhood engineer, and a 
former wielder of the scoop, designed his now famous 
stoker. It was not designed to degrade the fireman’s 
position, but to exalt it; not to make his duties within the 
province of “cheap men,” but to put a premium upon his 
intelligence; to give him greater opportunities to study 
and thus hasten the time of his promotion to the position 
of engineer. 

The merits of Mr. Kincaid’s invention are manifold, 
but prominent among them are— 

Its ability to fire an engine without opening the door, 
thus relieving the fireman from the extreme heat of 
the fire-box; to scatter the coal in small quantities over 
the whole grate area, just as the needs of the engine 
require, thus obtaining almost perfect combustion, the 
reduction of the smoke and spark nuisance to a minimum 
and to insure the greatest possible saving in coal. A 
higher and more uniform steam pressure can thus be ob¬ 
tained ; less clinkers are formed; longer runs can De made 
without cleaning the fires; as the stoker fires without 
opening the door, the in-rushes of cold air from frequent 
opening of the fire-door are eliminated, and the fire-box 
sheets and flues are protected from sudden contractions 


CARE AND OPERATION 


63 



Fig. 26. Victor Mechanical Stoker, 





















64 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


and expansions; thus the chief source of leaks in the 
furnace are practically overcome. 

In firing with the stoker a much lower grade of coal 
can be used than is possible in hand firing and still ac¬ 
complish as good or better results. Nut and slack coal 
is always preferable when using the stoker. 

These stokers have been in operation since January I, 
1905, attached to locomotives with wide fire-boxes, and 
to locomotives with long fire-boxes, used on all classes 
of passenger service. The result of this work has proven 
beyond all question that the stoker will do its work ef¬ 
ficiently and economically and that the fireman, having 
once become acquainted with the stoker and recognizing 
its labor-saving features, becomes its enthusiastic sup¬ 
porter. 

The continuous feeding of coal has a very marked 
effect upon the amount consumed. Run-of-mine coal 
is used, but it has been found that a good grade of 
slack will secure even better results owing to the prin¬ 
ciple of feeding coal in small quantities widely distributed. 
Absence of dense volumes of black smoke is also very 
noticeable. 

Figure 26 shows the stoker as it appears in the cab, 
the small controlling engine required to operate it being 
located on the boiler-head on the fireman's side. 

The following are the dimensions of the apparatus: 
Length over all, 47 inches; as three inches of the trough 
enters the fire-door, the stoker extends back on the deck 
44 inches; width over all, 24 inches; height on short 
legs, 28 inches. 

Figure 27 shows the stoker as attached to the furnace 
of a locomotive. A represents the hopper which re¬ 
ceives the coal; B the plunger-trough through which 


CARE AND OPERATION 


65 


coal is propelled into the furnace; C the stoking cylin¬ 
der; D the rotary valve; E the furnace door; F the 
controlling engine, and at the left of the furnace door, 
the steam pipe extending to the locomotive boiler; also 
the valves and choke-plugs of the stoker, arranged for 
the convenience of the fireman in regulating the opera¬ 
tion of the machine. 



Fig. 27. 


The illustration in Fig. 27 shows the controlling en¬ 
gine connected underneath the stoker. Fig. 28 is a trans¬ 
verse view from Fig. 27, and shows the head of the 
plunger and its position in the trough at the end of each 
stroke; the conical deflector, attached to the inside of the 
door, which spreads the coal in the fire-box, and when 
the stoker is removed, may be turned up to close the hole 
occupied by trough. The rocking-shaft connected with 
the controlling engine, which transmits power to the ro¬ 
tary valve, D, and to the conveyors in the hopper; also 
the end of the trough, in which the plunger travels, and 



66 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



the exhaust steam port are likewise shown in this illus¬ 
tration. 


Fig. 29. 

Fig. 29 shows the hopper raised, and reveals one of 
the twin spiral conveyors which carry the coal forward; 
it also shows the opening through which the coal drops 
onto the apron after leaving the conveyors, and, when 


CARE AND OPERATION 


67 


apron is retracted into the trough, to be thrown into the 
fire-box by the next forward stroke of the plunger. 

Description. The stoker consists of the following es¬ 
sential parts, viz.: First, a main cylinder and a trough in 
which reciprocates a piston and plunger which with a 
variable stroke throws the coal to the different portions 
of the fire-box. This variable stroke is given to the 
plunger by means of a rotary valve, three separate steam 
ports leading from said valve to the rear end of the 
cylinder, and three choke plugs, one for each of the said 
steam ports. 

Second, a small controlling engine. It has been found 
by experience that the most desirable location for this 
engine is on the boiler-head on the fireman’s side. This 
removes the liability of condensation and consequent dry¬ 
ness of engine parts when placed on and beneath the 
stoker itself. The steam for the operation of this engine 
is taken directly from the dome. 

Third, a hopper with two spiral conveyors journaled 
in the bottom of the hopper pan. The conveyors 
carry the coal to the front of the hopper, onto the 
apron of the plunger, giving a regular and uniform 
feed. The speed of the conveyors may be increased 
or diminished by giving more or less steam to the 
controlling engine, as may be required. This also 
increases the number of strokes made by the plunger, 
but does not affect the plunger’s velocity, or in any 
manner affect the distribution of the coal in the fire¬ 
box, the latter being governed by the three choke plugs. 

Fourth, a small steam chest containing a rotary valve 
which regulates the number of strokes made by the 
plunger. 

That portion of the stoker forming this valve chest 


68 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


is cast in one piece with the main cylinder and has 
three separate steam ports leading to the rear end of 
the cylinder for the admission of steam behind the 
plunger or piston. These steam ports terminate in one 
common port before entering the rear end of the cylin¬ 
der, first through a small preliminary port at the end 
of the cylinder (which also acts in the form of com¬ 
pression by retarding exhaust on the last portion of the 
return stroke), and after the piston has advanced a short 
distance it uncovers the main port, which also leads from 
the common port, giving free passage to the steam. 

A choke plug is placed in each of the three steam ports 
between the valve-sleeve and the common port. The 
office of the three choke plugs is to vary the amount of 
steam reaching the rear end of the cylinder through the 
various ports and thereby giving a variable stroke to the 
plunger. 

The valve operates in a rotary manner, each of the 
ports stopping fully open in front of its corresponding 
steam passage in regular succession: Beginning with 
No. 3 (the port nearest the rear of the stoker), the 
steam, after leaving this valve, passes through port 
No. 3 into the common port and the rear end of the 
cylinder. Choking down this steam port until it is al¬ 
most closed causes a very light stroke of the plunger, 
distributing the coal over the grate near the fire-door. The 
other two valves operate in the same manner, each taking 
its respective turn. They are adjusted so that more 
steam is admitted on the second stroke than on the third, 
thus distributing coal over the middle portion of the grate, 
and more on the first than on the second, thereby scat¬ 
tering coal over the front end of the grate. By this ad¬ 
justment of the choke plugs any range of distribution can 
be obtained that may be desired. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


69 


The rotary valve and cylinder are provided with suita¬ 
ble live steam and exhaust ports for the return of the 
plunger and the exhaust steam from each end of the cyl¬ 
inder. In the front end of the main cylinder is a very 
small live steam port, connected directly with the live 
steam supply, and its office is to return the plunger after 
its forward stroke and also to add volume to the steam 
retained after the piston has passed over the forward ex¬ 
haust port, thus giving the desired compression to pre¬ 
vent the piston ramming the front cylinder head. By 
means of a valve this port can be enlarged to give in¬ 
creased compression necessary when expelling water from 
condensed steam in starting the stoker when it is cold. 

Fifth, the furnace door. 

Each machine is supplied with a furnace door made 
to fit the standard door-frame of the locomotive to which 
the stoker is to be attached. This door has an opening 
to receive the stoker trough and is provided with suitable 
brackets for holding the machine in position. Cast upon 
its inner side are curved lugs, which serve the purpose 
of hinges for a deflector for spreading each charge of coal 
over the width of the fire-box. The end of this deflector 
can be raised, if necessary, to aid in the distribution of 
coal, by means of a set-screw directly under its center. 
It also has a small vertical sliding door for inspecting the 
fire, and the deflector can be turned up vertically and held 
in place by a latch to close the trough opening when the 
stoker is removed. 

To Operate the Stoker. —Directions for Firemen. 
—Don’t fail to be on your engine at least 30 minutes be¬ 
fore leaving time. 

Know for yourself, before starting, that you have the 
necessary tools with which to do your work. If they arc 


70 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


not on the engine, report the matter to the round-house 
foreman, and don’t go out without them. 

A fireman’s outfit should consist of 2 scoops, 2 hooks 
(one 12 feet and one 7 feet), 2 torches, one coal pick, 
and one ash-pan scraper. 

Before leaving the round-house, examine the shaker 
rigging and know before starting that it is O. K. Also 
see that the ash-pans are clean. 

To build the fire break every particle of bank. Be 
careful not to get green coal on the grates. Spread 
the fire evenly over the entire grate area, then attach 
the stoker. 

Assist the engineer all you can in getting the engine 
ready, but never neglect your work to do his. Always 
manage to keep the oil cans and torches filled and ready 
for immediate use. 

Be sure the steam is turned on next to boiler. If you 
have a reducing valve set the gauge at about 60 or 80 
pounds; if not, about one-half turn on the globe valve 
next to the boiler is sufficient. Before admitting steam to 
stoker always open the admission valve to front end of 
cylinder to prevent the piston from ramming the front 
head. Leave this valve open, until the condensation is 
thoroughly blown out, and machine heated up to steam 
temperature. Then close and leave it closed. 

Regulate the speed of the stoking piston by the throt¬ 
tle valve to the controlling engine. Run the machine 
slowly at first until enough steam is held in the cylinder 
on which to cushion the motion of the piston. 

Starting the Stoker. —Turn on the steam gently, al ¬ 
lowing sufficient time for condensation to blow out . 
(Turning on a full head of steam before condensation is 


CARE AND OPERATION 


71 


exhausted will burst this cylinder the same as it would 
on any other engine.) This may require a little time, 
as the steam ports are small. If there are any drain 
cocks on the stoker, see that they are open before turn¬ 
ing on the steam. If there are none, considerable water 
will appear at the mouth of the stoker trough when 
starting the machine. This comes from the exhaust, 
and is caused by the steam coming in contact with the 
cold metal of the machine, but will disappear in a few 
minutes, or as soon as the circulation of steam has 
warmed up the cylinders. Should the piston head hit the 
back cylinder head on the return stroke open choke plug 
No. 3 to let in enough steam to cushion. If water ap¬ 
pears at the exhaust after the machine has been in oper¬ 
ation for some time, it indicates too much water in the 
boiler. As soon as steam has been turned on at the 
boiler, open the globe valve in the steam pipe leading to 
the small engine. This is the throttle valve for the small 
engine, and the amount of steam admitted by it regulates 
the speed of the conveyors and the number of strokes 
made by the plunger. To run the machine fast or slow 
increases or diminishes the amount of coal fed into the 
furnace, but does not affect the distribution of the coal 
in the fire-box. Should controlling engine be lazy about 
starting touch one of the tappet rods at either end of the 
floating valve. 

To Regulate the Choke Plugs. —To regulate the 
choke plugs for the distribution of coal in the fire-box, 
wait until the steam has reached the maximum pres¬ 
sure and machine is working; then with all the choke 
plugs wide open, turn on enough steam at the throttle 
valve to throw the coal near to, but not strike the flue 
sheet; then close down the middle choke plug (No. 2) 


72 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


until this charge falls near the center of the fire-box; 
then close down the choke plug No. 3, next to the back 
end of the stoker, until the coal drops inside the fur¬ 
nace door. This gives a distribution over the entire 
length of the fire-box. Don’t fill the hopper with coal 
when regulating the choke plugs or you will get too 
much coal in the fire-box, and waste fuel. Use only one 
or two scoopsful at a time and watch the distribution 
in the fire-box. 

In regulating the choke plugs when the engines are 
standing, be careful not to make the strokes too heavy, 
as the draft will assist in carrying the coal forward 
when the engine is working. Never try to regulate choke 
plugs with the front end admission valve open. If the 
steam drops 20 or 50 pounds while the stoker is in op¬ 
eration, open the throttle valve accordingly, unless some 
form of steam regulator is used. If, after running some 
time you find the stoker piston only making half strokes, 
examine front end admission valve and you will find it 
was not entirely closed or accidentally opened. Close 
this as far as you can and remedy the trouble. 

Operating the Stoker. —In operating the stoker on 
large engines with a heavy train, usually 20 to 30 strokes 
of the plunger per minute is sufficient, providing the hop¬ 
per is kept full. The speed of the stoker can be varied 
from 12 to 40 or more strokes per minute. The speed of 
the stoker should be regulated to correspond with the 
work the engine is doing. Before starting out on a run, 
see that the entire surface of the grates is covered with 
fire. A heavy fire is not necessary, as better results can 
be obtained with a thin, bright fire. Avoid heavy firing. 
Remember the stoker is at work continually and there is 
little danger of the fire getting away, but don’t neglect it 


CARE AND OPERATION 


73 


when the engineer shuts off steam. Remember your fire 
is lighter than when firing by hand, and will die out 
quicker. Notice the condition of the tire often. This 
can be done by means of the small vertical sliding 
door above the stoker trough. If you can’t see take 
your long hook and feel your fire occasionally. If the 
fire should become banked near the door, open up the 
choke plug No. 3 until this charge of coal goes be¬ 
yond the bank; if the fire becomes banked near the flue 
sheet, close down the choke plug No. 1 slightly. If the 
fire is too light near the door or flue sheet, the reverse 
action should be taken; if the fire is too heavy in the 
center of the fire-box, notice the choke plug No. 2, and 
if this is firing in the right place either open up the choke 
plug No. 1 or close down choke plug No. 3 slightly, or 
both, as this may happen by having the third stroke too 
heavy and the first too light. As a general rule, when the 
choke plugs have once been regulated, it is seldom neces¬ 
sary to change them. However, it is better to change the 
plugs than to hook the fire. If a bank is found anywhere 
in the fire, it can generally be burnt out without using the 
hook, by changing the choke plugs. With engines having 
a severe draft, considerable coal may be carried in by the 
draft before the plunger strikes it. This with some en¬ 
gines, is distributed over the back part of the grate, and 
with some engines it is distributed near the center. In 
either case the choke plugs should be regulated to suit ? 
these conditions. The coal should be broken as fine as 
possible, as much better results can be obtained. Rail¬ 
roads having the stoker in use should furnish nut and 
slack. It is much cheaper and the stoker will do better 
work with it. 

In taking stoker apart be very careful not to lose nuts. 




74 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


bolts or other small parts, the loss of which might dis¬ 
able the machine. 

Always keep the packing around the main piston rod 
tight. If this gets loose the steam used for cushioning the 
forward stroke escapes, causing the piston to strike front 
head. 

Drifting Down Grades. —While drifting down a long 
grade it is only necessary to feed enough coal into the fire¬ 
box to keep up the heat and not let fire get too low. It 
has been suggested to build up a pretty good fire in the 
firebox before starting down grade and then to use the 
blower occasionally and feed in coal only just what is 
needed. Before reaching the bottom of the grade, if it is 
a long one, it would be well to start the stoker so as to 
have a good fire and a good supply of steam when the en¬ 
gine begins to use the steam again. 

Care of Stoking Head. —Always stop the stoker be¬ 
fore hooking the fire as the hook might be caught by ad¬ 
vance stroke of piston, and the stoking head or piston rod 
be broken. If at any time the stoking head should get a 
trifle loose, take off the nuts which hold it on and insert a 
sheet iron washer behind them to keep it tight. Notice 
this every day. 

Shaking the Grates. —The fireman should shake the 
grates often but not top much at a time. Avoid getting 
green coal on the grates. 

Dampers. —Watch the dampers closely. On starting 
out it is occasionally best to keep the front one closed and 
the back one open, but over the last part of the run, or in 
any case where the fire is dirty and draft obstructed, it 
may be better to open the front damper and close the back 
one. The regulation of dampers must be left almost en- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


75 


tirely to the judgment of the fireman as the varying condi¬ 
tions require different adjustments of the dampers. 

Black Smoke. —The emission of black smoke indi¬ 
cates that the engine is being fired too heavily. It also 
indicates that coal is being wasted, and as the purpose of 
the stoker is to save, not to waste coal, these signs should 
always be recognized as an evidence of improper adjust¬ 
ment. 

When the stoker is doing the duty it is capable of per¬ 
forming, the proper quantities of oxygen are admitted 
to the firebox to create nearly perfect combustion, which 
depends upon two parts of oxygen to one part of the com¬ 
bustible elements found in the coal and of course, a uni¬ 
formly high temperature in the firebox. Therefore, black 
smoke may be taken as a safe guide in determining a 
waste of coal, resulting from too heavy firing, and the 
stoker should be regulated accordingly. 

Tools— With each stoker is furnished a £4 by £4 
wrench, which will fit nearly all the small nuts and cap 
screws on the machine. The 9^-in. air pump spanner 
wrench, which is found on every locomotive, will unscrew 
the caps on the floating and reverse valve chests and will 
loosen the stuffing box on main cylinder, controlling en¬ 
gine and the rotary valve. The thumbscrew which holds 
the stuffing box on main cylinder from getting loose, is 
used to turn and draw out the reversing valve stem in the 
controlling engine. All the studs on stoker are £4x2/2, 
all nuts are ^4 semi-finished; all cap screws are £4 x i£ 4 - 

All firemen should see that they are supplied with one 
7 foot and one 12-foot hook, 2 scoops, 2 torches, 1 coal 

pick and 1 ash-pan scraper. 

Coal. _While the stoker will handle about as large 

lumps of coal as can be fired by the shovel, yet all rail- 


76 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


roads forbid the firing of coal in large lumps as it is not 
only to the advantage of the railroad but also of the fire¬ 
man, for large lumps of coal start clinkers and in the 
end cause more trouble to the fireman than it would be to 
break up the lumps. With the stoker it is particularly de¬ 
sirable that all lumps be broken up to a size not larger 
than a man’s fist. 


don’t forget to fill lubricator before starting. 

Oil. —One of the most important duties of a fireman in 
operating a stoker is to see that the lubricator is feeding 
oil, about three to five drops per minute all the time stoker 
is in use, but shut off lubricator when standing on the side 
track. No steam engine will run long without oil, and 
the stoker is no exception to the rule. Therefore we de¬ 
sire to impress upon firemen the fact that a lack of oil in 
the stoker and on all its wearing parts will not only dis¬ 
able or damage the stoker, but will also brand the fireman 
in charge of the stoker as a careless man and not fit to 
handle a stoker or an engine. 

Care of Stoker at Terminals.—As different customs 
prevail on different railroads, it is probable that the same 
directions for handling the stoker at terminals cannot al¬ 
ways be followed. 

O'ur observation, however, has led us to believe that it 
is better for the fireman to detach the stoker at terminals 
and roll it back against the coal gate, leaving it in such a 
position that it cannot be damaged by dumping coal into 
the tender, or be in the way of the men cleaning or re¬ 
pairing the engine. 

The fireman should instruct hostlers to have a good 


CARE AND OPERATION 


77 


supply of steam by the time he has reached his engine, 
say ioo pounds pressure or more, and he should make 
it a point at all times to be at his engine in plenty of time 
to have everything ready before time for starting. When 
the fireman reaches his engine he should examine the 
stoker carefully to see that it is all right. Blow a little 
steam through the pipe before connecting the stoker, and 
see that there is no coal or cinders in the stoker end of the 
disconnected pipe. Some railroad men have suggested 
that the hostlers should disconnect and connect the stoker 
at terminals. As hostlers, and particularly their helpers, 
would not be expected to be familiar with the stoker, we 
would discourage this idea as we believe it would be a 
source of trouble on account of misusage. Beside this, it 
does not take five minutes for the fireman to detach the 
stoker, when coming into a terminal, and he can always 
have it unfastened and placed back out of the way before 
the engine reaches the stopping place, and but a few 
minutes to attach stoker when ready to start out; but the 
fireman should insist upon the hostler or his assistants 
having a good fire ready for him when he reaches his 
engine before starting out. Always try shaker bars to see 
if they are properly connected and in good working con¬ 
dition. 

Accidents. —Should an accident occur to the stoker 
while on the road, and you are sure that it cannot be read¬ 
ily repaired, cut off the steam from the stoker, loosen the 
connections, and if there is no room on the engine deck, 
run the stoker back out of the way; turn up the deflector 
to cover the hole in the door occupied by the trough and 
fasten it, firing the engine by hand until such a time as 
the permanent door can be put on. By removing journal 
caps on right-hand conveyor, the hopper can be removed 


78 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


and placed on back of tank. Should the engine be a small 
one, having no room to get the stoker out of the way, let 
it remain in position and fire through the small door until 
a stopping place is reached where it can be examined. Do 
not attempt to put on the regular door belonging to the 
engine until a station has* been reached or until the condi¬ 
tions are such that it can be done without losing your fire. 
Then consider the matter very carefully as to what is best 
to be done. 

If the stoker can be repaired in the shops of the road, 
have the repairs made as soon as the shops are reached, 
and if the repairs are of such a character that they must 
be made by the manufacturers of the stoker wire the shops 
at the first stopping place to have the necessary parts or¬ 
dered. In dispatches or letters always give full informa¬ 
tion, leaving nothing to be guessed at. A few cents more 
expense by adding a few words more to a message should 
not be considered if there is the least possibility of a mis¬ 
understanding as to your meaning. In a letter, if there is 
any doubt of misunderstanding or misinterpretation as to 
what is wanted, make a sketch of the part or parts re¬ 
quired. 

In repairing the stoker, should any nuts or bolts be¬ 
come rusted or unremovable, soak them thoroughly in 
kerosene, which will, in most cases, loosen them in a short 
time. Be very careful not to lose any bolts, nuts, keys or 
other small parts, the loss of which might disable the ma¬ 
chine. 

When out on the road, make note of any parts that may 
become broken or out of order as soon as discovered, and 
upon reaching the terminal look carefully over the stoker 
and see if any other repairs are needed. Make it a point 
to have the machine in perfect condition so that it will be 


CARE AND OPERATION 


79 


ready to start out on the next trip. This is imperative, 
and must be attended to before leaving the roundhouse. 

Do not lose tools and extra parts committed to your 
care, as such losses can only be attributed to carelessness. 

The following remarks concerning mechanical stokers 
are copied from a report by J. E. Muhlfeld, General 
Superintendent Motive Power, B. and O. Railroad for dis¬ 
cussion at the seventh session of the International Rail¬ 
way Congress held in Washington, D. C., in May, I 9 ° 5 » 
and published in the Locomotive Firemen’s Magazine 
of August, 1905. 

Mr. Muhlfeld says: 

“Since the introduction of locomotives of great power, 
the chief consideration in connection with the selection of 
men for firemen hab been to procure the persons of stur¬ 
dier physique, sufficiently muscled to withstand the manu¬ 
al labor, and who possess, in addition to their physical 
qualifications, the intelligence that will insure advance¬ 
ment to positions as locomotive engineers. 

“With the usual type of locomotive furnace, grate ar¬ 
rangement and draft appliances, the steaming capacity of 
the boiler is largely dependent upon the quality of the 
fuel and the method of firing. More especially will this 
be noted where the distances are long, schedules fast, 
weather and dispatching conditions unfavorable, and little, 
or no, opportunity is given to clean the dirty fires which 
may accumulate on large grate areas. Under such cir¬ 
cumstances, the better the quality of the coal used, the 
more satisfactory will be the results. 

“Good firing requires that the proper amount of fuel be 
supplied to the firebox to meet the demands of the locomo¬ 
tive, and in the case of coal, or solid fuel, it must be placed 
on the grate at the proper point and time. 


80 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


“With locomotives of great power, the average fire¬ 
man is more a means for transferring the coal from the 
tender to the firebox, than an expert to insure good com¬ 
bustion and economy. Therefore, on long runs, it may be 
said that mechanical automatic stoking is not only de¬ 
sirable, but necessary for economy. 

“In the use of liquid fuel, the apparatus for feeding the 
oil to the furnace may be considered as meeting the re¬ 
quirements of an automatic stoker but with solid and bitu¬ 
minous fuel, the problem is not so simple. Those mechan¬ 
ical automatic stokers now on the market have been de¬ 
signed to feed coal into the firebox in a similar manner to 
hand firing, and do not accomplish the results desired 
either as to the labor required to handle the coal, better 
combustion, or the prevention of large quantities of 
smoke. From a combustion standpoint, an underfeed type 
of stoker should give the most desirable performance, and 
as its mechanical relation with the tender would be such 
that the labor for handling the coal from the supply to the 
stoker could be reduced to the minimum, it would appear 
to be the proper one to devolop for locomotive purposes. 
By underfeeding the fuel, the fresh coal is continually 
introduced below the fire line, and in rising is brought to 
the coking stage, at which time the gases are liberated, 
pass upward through the fire, and are consumed to the last 
degree, producing as nearly as practicable complete com¬ 
bustion. Such a method, besides providing for a more 
uniform fire and consequent unvarying steam pressure, 
dispenses with the smoke nuisance, and there should be no 
waste of unconsumed fuel by loss through grates, or being 
carried through the tubes and ejected into the atmosphere. 

“The application and practical development of a suitable 
design of mechanical automatic underfeed stoker in con- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


81 


nection with the wide firebox, as now generally applied to 
locomotives, will be looked forward to with much in¬ 
terest.’’ 


THE HAYDEN MECHANICAL STOKER. 

This stoker performs all of the functions of taking the 
coal from the tender, dividing it into small portions, and 
distributing it in the firebox. 

To accomplish this there is first, a heavy grating placed 
just in front of the coal grates on the floor of the tender, 
beneath which the horizontal section of a coal conveyer is 
made to travel. 

Coal dropping through this grating is taken by the con¬ 
veyor and carried up on one side and thence back to the 
center where it drops into the tube of a screw conveyor 
by which it is carried to a point just back of the boiler 
head where it drops into a hopper. 

The bottom of this hopper is closed by a valve that is 
capable of turning through a half revolution, and receiv¬ 
ing a charge of coal when its opening is uppermost. 

The half turn drops the coal on a shelf in front of the 
firebox, whence it is blown by steam jets to the various 
parts of the firebox with an even distribution. 

The rate of feeding may be varied to suit the require¬ 
ments of the engine, and quality of coal that is being used. 

The receiving grate is a heavy casting having openings 
4 in. x 3^4 in. This grate lies immediately in front of 
the coal grates in the floor of the tender. 

The conveyor tube is raised above the foot plate, thus 
affording ample head room beneath it and is carried by an 
angle arch springing from the front of the legs of the 
tank, and the cross piece of the conveyor. 


82 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



M 


Fig. 30. Hayden Mechanical Stoker—Showing Its Application to 

Locomotive Boiler. 

















CARE AND OPERATION 


83 


The conveyor is driven by its own engine, consisting of 
two 4 in. x 4 in. cylinders driving a worm, by which the 
speed is reduced to that suitable for the work. The hop¬ 
per into which the coal drops from the screw conveyor has 
an upper opening of about 18 in. x 34 in. and tapers down 
to one of 6 in. x 10 in. at the bottom. 

As the depth is about 21 inches the storage capacity at 
this point is 3*4 cubic feet, or about 175 pounds. 



Fig. 31. Hayden Mechanical Stoker—Hopper and Coal Valve. 


The charging valve is located beneath the hopper. It 
is in the form of a hollow shell, as shown in the illustra¬ 
tion, and will hold about 12 pounds. The coal drops into 
it when the opening is uppermost. It turns on trunnions 
that are centered in the main casting and which are fitted 
with spur gears at the outer ends. These gears mesh with 
a couple of racks that are directly connected to the piston 
rods coming from the two operating cylinders AA Fig. 32 



















84 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


placed above the door and partially back of the hopper on 
either side. As the pistons of these two cylinders move 
up and down the motion is transmitted to the rack, and 
also to the valve, which is turned through a half revolu¬ 
tion for each full stroke. 

The steam admission, and exhaust for these two cylin¬ 
ders is regulated by a special valve that is driven in turn 
by a small two cylinder engine. 




Fig. 32. Hayden Mechanical Stoker—Front Elevation and Section. 


The engine which drives the valve of the distributing 
cylinders is of the two cylinder type, without eccentric or 
pivoted connections. The cylinders are i l / 2 in. bore by 
in. stroke of pistons. The pistons are packed with spring 
rings, and are solid with their rods, which latter are 
screwed into Scotch yokes by which rotary motion is given 
to the shaft. 








































CARE AND OPERATION 


85 


Each yoke also serves as a point of attachment for the 
valve stem of the mating cylinder, so that the cranks form 
the eccentrics for the valve motion. 

As these cranks are set at right angles with each other, 
when considered as eccentrics, one leads the crank, the 
valve of whose cylinder it controls, while the other follows 
it. 

The valves are therefore arranged for an outside, and 
inside admission respectively, but, owing to the position 
of the cranks, can have no lap or lead, and therefore ad¬ 
mit steam for the full length of the stroke. 



Fig. 33. Hayden Mechanical Stoker-Valve for Operating Cylinders. 


In the case of the outside admission valve, steam is ad¬ 
mitted to the upper end of the steam chest and passes 
down through the center of the valve to the other end, 
where it leaves by the side opening at B Fig. 35 to enter 
the space beneath the valve and be admitted to the cylin¬ 
der through port C Fig. 35 when the valve has risen suffi¬ 
ciently to uncover it. 




























86 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 





































































































CARE AND OPERATION 


87 


For the exhaust of this cylinder the valve acts as an or¬ 
dinary D valve. 

In the case of the other cylinder the flow of steam with 
the valve of inside admission, is reversed. Steam is ad¬ 
mitted to the center of the valve, and exhausted direct at 
the upper end while at the lower end it passes to the 
center of the valve through the side opening D Fig. 35 
and thence to the upper end, and the exhaust. 

The Scotch yokes are held in alignment by stems pro¬ 
jecting downward in the usual way. These engines are 
very compact and measure but iyj 4 inches by 7 inches 
by 7 inches over all. The shaft carries a worm at one end 
meshing with a gear of- 72 teeth, on whose shaft is a crank 
driving another Scotch yoke that is attached to the stem 
of the distributing valve of the operating cylinders AA 
Fig. 32. 

Before taking up the operation of this valve attention 
is called to the three functions that it must perform. It 
must admit steam to the two ends of the operating cylin¬ 
ders and exhaust it from the same. It must also admit 
steam to the steam jets for the propulsion of the coil at 
the proper moment, as it would be wasteful, and inadvisa¬ 
ble to keep the jets open, and blowing all of the time. 

Fig. 33 shows the method of action clearly. Starting 
with the left hand figure, and the crank at the upper 
point, the valve is at the extreme of its travel, and being 
of the inside admission type, steam is flowing out to the 
top of the operating or distributing cylinders, by which 
the pistons are forced down, and the coal valve turned to 
dump on the receiving plate at the door. This port, 
which started to open when the crank was 45 degrees 
from the central position on the approaching side at R, 


88 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



Fig. 35. Hayden Mechanical Stoker—Valve-Operating Engine. 


























































































































































CARE AND OPERATION 


89 


is held open through a quarter revolution, or until the 
crank has reached E. 

On passing this point the port is opened to the exhaust, 
and almost immediately the one leading to the bottom of 
the operating cylinder is opened to the steam, and the 
pistons returned to their upper position, with the coal 
valve set to receive a fresh charge. 



Fig. 36. Hayden Mechanical Stoker—Showing Coal Conveyor Applied 
to Locomotive Tender. 


While the piston is down the coal valve dumps its con¬ 
tents upon the fuel plate, and then as the crank turns on, 
the valve is drawn down still lower until, just before 
reaching the lower center, the port of the blast pipe is 








90 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


opened, and the steam admitted that blows the coal out 
into and distributes it over the firebox. 

Then as the valve rises, the ports to the jet, and the 
lower end of the operating cylinders are closed, while that 
to upper is opened, and the cycle repeated. 

The maximum rate of feed used upon a class H-6-A 
locomotive of the Pennsylvania Railroad, which is of the 
consolidation (2-8-0) type, is about 14 strokes per 
minute. 

As the worm gear has 72 teeth, the speed of the small 
valve-operating engine is about 1000 R. P. M. 

The design of the operating cylinders is worked out 
very carefully in order to prevent slamming and provide 
a proper cushion for the pistons at the end of their 
strokes. 

This has been accomplished by an ingenious arrange¬ 
ment of check valves illustrated in Fig. 34. There are 
two sets of check valves at each end, one for the admis¬ 
sion, and the other for the cushion. The latter are so ar¬ 
ranged that the piston, with a stroke of 6)4 inches, travels 
to within 2 inches of the end, with the exhaust port at L 
open in front of it. This port is then covered and the 
insignificant resistance of the entrapped steam encount¬ 
ered for the next 1% inches, after which the piston un¬ 
covers the port and steam is admitted beneath the check 
valve N, which is opened against its spring and steam 
flows to the top of the piston, where in the last inch of 
its stroke it gradually comes to rest. The check valves 
OO in the steam pipes serve to admit steam above the 
piston and yet prevent a reverse flow into the exhaust 
during the period of cushioning. In studying this action 
it must be borne in mind that the pipes PP serve both as 
exhaust or admission passages according to the position 


CaO Poor 


CARE AND OPERATION 


91 




Fig. 37. 


Hayden Mechanical Stoker—Side and End Elevation 







































































92 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


of the distributing valve; also that the port L is not un¬ 
covered by the piston when the latter is at the end of 
its stroke. Then if steam is admitted to the upper pipe 



Fig. 38. Hayden Mechanical Stoker—Conveyor Engine. 


P it passes up through the check valve to the top of the 
piston, forcing the latter down until it passes the port L, 


































































































































CARE AND OPERATION 


93 


when the live steam enters the cylinder above the piston 
by that passage. In the meantime, as the piston ap¬ 
proaches the lower end of the stroke and steam is ad¬ 
mitted below, the passage to the exhaust in the lower pipe 
P is blocked by the lower check valve O so that there can 
be no back flow or escape in that way. Of course the 
same conditions are obtained on the reversal of the stroke. 

The admission of steam to these operating cylinders 
starts the pistons with a very rapid action. Advantage 
is taken of this in the construction of the coil valve. A 
reference to the side elevation and section will show that 
the lip of the valve is flush with the edge of the hopper on 
the boiler side but stands about 2 x / 2 inches back of it on 
the other side. There is thus inches of motion to 
the face of the valve before it begins to close the open¬ 
ing to the hopper. In this distance it acquires a mo¬ 
mentum sufficient to cut through any projecting lumps 
of coal that may intervene and thus close with the full 
stroke. 

With the coal delivered from the valve there yet re¬ 
mains the important function of its proper distribution 
over the grates. This is done by means of five jet noz¬ 
zles shown in the plan. Steam is admitted to all of these 
nozzles through a pipe leading from the operating valve 
already described, and in which there is a valve so that 
the flow, as a whole, can be controlled. Each nozzle is 
further provided with adjusting valves by which the in¬ 
tensity of the individual jet can be regulated, to accord 
with the size of the firebox, the intensity of the draft 
and the quality of the coal used. 

The two at the outside turn almost at right angles, 
and serve to deliver the coal in the back corners of the 
firebox, the intermediate jets throw the coal along the 


94 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


sides, and into the front corners, while the one in the 
center throws it straight ahead. The practical working 
will be considered later on. 

The firebox door has been designed so that it can be 
opened at any time. It carries a chute on the back, into 
which the coal is delivered from the valve, and beyond 
this simply takes the place of the ordinary door, and 
can be used for hand firing in case of the disarrange¬ 
ment of the machinery of the stoker, or in case it is de¬ 
sired to rake or inspect the fires. 



Fig. 39. Hayden Mechanical Stoker—Grating in Tender Floor for 
Conveyor. 


Concerning its practical operations, the experience has 
not been extensive, but it has apparently been satisfactory. 
The one most important step in its development was to 
provide for the proper distribution of the coal, 

This required a long series of experiments and when 
the adjustments had been made in such a manner that 
this distribution could be relied upon an application was 
macle to a consolidation locomotive on the Pennsylvania 
lines, of the H-6-A class having cylinders 22 in. x 28 in. 
with a weight of 173,000 pounds upon the drivers. 

Of several tests made with this engine for the purpose 











































CARE AND OPERATION 


95 


of determining the value of the stoker as a labor saver, 
and an efficient steam producer, the following record of 
one is given: 

The distance between the two points is 100.3 miles. On 
leaving Columbus going east there is an adverse grade of 
1%, followed by .94 and .78%, making a total up grade 
for a distance of 13.6 miles to Summit, from which point 
there is a down grade of somewhat smaller percentages 
into Newark, 33 miles from Columbus. From Newark to 
Dennison the grades are very light and short, and the 
road may be considered as practically level. 

On the east bound trip referred to the train out of Co¬ 
lumbus consisted of 28 cars weighing 1,281 tons, which 
was increased to 43 cars, and 1,839 tons at Newark. In 
moving about the yard the firing was done by hand in 
the usual manner, as the work required was intermittent 
and it was easier to handle the coal in this way than 
to start and stop the stoker at such short intervals as 
would be necessary. 

At 12.30 p. m. the engine started with its train, and at 
12.33^ the stoker was put into action, delivering coal 
at the rate of 14 charges per minute. Ten minutes later 
there .was a stop on a siding to permit a passenger train 
to pass when hand firing was again resorted to. 

The safety valves were set to open at 205 pounds and 
the pressure was maintained above 195 for the whole trip 
except on the hill out of Columbus. Here the engine- 
man was not working the engine very hard, and the fire¬ 
man, not noticing it, continued to run the stoker at full 
speed, with the result that a surplus of coal was thrown 
in and the fire deadened. 

It occasionally became necessary to use the hook to 
level the fire, and this was done 13 times between Colum- 


96 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


bus and Dennison. The total elapsed time between 
terminals was 5 hours and 10 minutes, of which 1 hour 
and 55 minutes were on sidings, giving an actual running 
time of 3 hours and 15 minutes, or an average speed of 
26.1 miles per hour. As a matter of fact the actual speed 
varied between wide limits, running from 15 to 50 miles 
an hour. 

As the stoker was set to feed the coal faster than the 
requirements of the engine demanded it was necessary to 
shut it off at intervals in order to let the fire burn down. 
There was, of course, no regularity in these intervals of 
stopping. Sometimes they would follow one another 
rapidly and in quick succession; then they would be 
separated by wide intervals. In all, under these condi¬ 
tions, the stoker was standing about 22 minutes during 
the course of the trip. At one point the operating valve 
stuck for about 6^ minutes, and before it was again 
made operative the fireman threw 37 shovelfuls of coal in¬ 
to the furnace, doing it in eight firings, showing the 
facility with which the change from stoker to hand firing 
can be made. 


RYAN-JOHNSON LOCOMOTIVE TENDER. 

One of the hardest duties that falls to the lot of the 
locomotive fireman is the work of getting the coal for¬ 
ward in the tender within reach of his shovel, and the 
worst feature of this work is, that the farther along on 
the run he gets, the farther back in the tender the coal 
gets, so that by the time he is nearing the terminal, tired 
and almost worn out the duty of keeping the coal up in 
front becomes very irksome. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


97 


None can appreciate such a situation better than those 
who have been “through the mill,” therefore two locomo¬ 
tive firemen, Messrs. Edward Ryan and Oscar Johnson 
have secured a patent for an improved locomotive tender, 
provided with a mechanism for moving the coal forward, 
thus lightening the labor of the fireman. 

The following description of this device together with 
the illustrations is reproduced from the Locomotive Fire¬ 
men’s Magazine of September, 1901. 

We quote: “This invention relates to improvements in 
locomotive tenders, the object of the invention being to 
provide means which can be readily operated from the 
forward end of the tender, the cab of the engine, or at 
any suitable or desired point for agitating the coal in the 
coal pit or moving the same forward so that it can 
be readily reached by the fireman without having to 
enter the tender to agitate the coal or move same for¬ 
ward. 

“Locomotive tenders as usually constructed are pro¬ 
vided with a water tank or tanks, except at the forward 
end of the tender, which is usually provided with a door 
or grate, and it often happens that the coal being used 
from the forward end, clogs in the rear of the pit, or is 
so far back, that it is difficult for the fireman to reach the 
same with his shovel and it thus becomes necessary for 
him to enter the pit, and loosen the coal or move the same 
forward, where it can be easily reached from the for¬ 
ward end of the tender. 

“It is one object of our invention to provide means for 
obviating this labor on the part of the fireman and which 
can be readily operated from any desired point to loosen 
the coal or move the same forward in the pit. 


98 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


“A further object is to provide such means with fluid- 
pressure-operating means controllable within the engine- 
cab or at any other desired point. 




“A further object of the invention is to provide a 
tender of the usual construction with a movable back or 















































CARE AND OPERATION 


99 


side for the coal-pit and means for moving the said part 
to loosen the coal or move the same forward in the pit. 

“A further object of the invention is to provide a 
movable side or back for the coal-pit and provide means 
to prevent the coal getting behind or under the back or 
side to prevent its proper operation. 

“A further object of the invention is to provide a lo¬ 
comotive-tender with simple and effective means for agi¬ 
tating, loosening, or moving the coal in the pit. 

“With such and other objects in view the invention 
is embodied in the novel parts, arrangement, and combi¬ 
nations of parts hereinafter described, and particularly 
set forth in the claims. 

“In the accompanying drawings is illustrated a prac¬ 
tical embodiment of the invention; but it is to be under¬ 
stood that the invention is not to be limited in its useful 
application to the construction which for the sake of 
illustration is there delineated. 

“In the drawings, Fig. 40, is a plan view of a locomo¬ 
tive-tender provided with the invention. Fig. 41 is a 
longitudinal sectional view through the tender shown in 
Fig. 40, showing in dotted lines and full lines the different 
positions of the coal moving or loosening means. 

“In the drawings we have shown only the body of a 
tender, which is conveniently of the usual known con¬ 
struction and is provided with the side and rear water- 
tanks or substantially U-shaped tank (indicated at A). 
Between these tanks or the space formed between the 
sides of the tanks is the coal-pit B, as is usual in the 
common construction of tenders, and it is believed that 
a detailed description of the tender-body and tanks is 
not necessary to an understanding of this invention. 

“C indicates a gate or door at the forward end of the 


100 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


tender between the parts of the tank A for the purpose of 
preventing the escape of the coal from the pit. This 
gate is such as is usually employed. 



“E indicates a movable part, back, or side of the coal¬ 
pit which, by a movement thereof is adapted to agitate, 
loosen, or move the coal in the pit. Preferably this part 
is fashioned as a supplemental back or side for the coal¬ 
pit and has the inclined body F extending down into the 






































CARE AND OPERATION 


101 


coal-pit and hinged, as by hinges f in the bottom of the 
pit. Secured to the body part F are side flanges G, fash¬ 
ioned to conform to the vertical lower side portion and 
upper inclined side portion of the parts of the water- 
tank A. The parts F and G are preferably provided with 
vertical flanges F # and G', lying against the sides of the 
body of the tender above the water-tank and indicated at 
H. It will thus be seen that the movable means or part 
E is substantially the shape of the rear portion of the 
coal-pit and rests upon the inclined back J and sides of 
the coal-pit. By a movement of this part E on its 
hinges the coal which rests thereon is moved to loosen 
the same or move the same forward, and for the pur¬ 
pose of moving or oscillating the part E the same is 
shown as being provided with a piston-rod K, hinged 
in any convenient or desired manner to the part E and 
provided at its end with a piston k, working in a cylin¬ 
der L, located beneath the part E. The cylinder is 
shown as being mounted within the rear portion of 
the water-tank. This cylinder has connected to it, con¬ 
veniently at the lower end thereof, a supply-pipe M 
for a motive fluid'—such as water, steam or air—and the 
pipe M may be connected by a suitable flexible hose N or 
otherwise to any source of fluid-pressure,-such as a steam- 
pump or the air-brake system or reservoir of the loco¬ 
motive. Suitable means (not shown) is provided for 
controlling the admission and exhaust of the fluid motive 
medium to the cylinder L to control at will the operation 
of the piston therein to oscillate or agitate the part E. 

“It is apparent that when the part F is moved on its 
hinges the side flanges G move up and away from the 
underlying inclined faces of the water-tank, and if not 
provided with means to prevent the same the coal in the 


102 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


tank is apt to work under the side flange G and prevent 
the proper operation of the part E. To prevent this, each 
flange G is provided at its forward edge with a hinged 
wing O, hinged, as by means of hinges, o, to the flanges 
G. The forward edges of the wings O in the movement 
of the part E rest and slide on the inclined faces of the 
water-tank, thus always effectually closing the spaces be¬ 
tween the wings or flanges G and the inclined faces of 
the water-tank. 

“It will be understood that the controlling means for 
the motive fluid to the cylinder L can be located and oper¬ 
ated from any desired point—as, for instance, the cab of 
the engine. It is not, however, believed necessary to par¬ 
ticularly describe or illustrate any particular means for 
the controlling of the motive fluid.” 

LUBRICATORS. 

In the “good old days,” when tallow was the only 
known lubricant for the valves, it was one of the duties 
of the fireman on approaching a station or drifting down 
a hill, to seize the tallow pot and make a rush for the 
front end to oil the valves. This, with the weather at 
zero or below, was not a very desirable job, to say the 
least, and in course of time somebody thought out the 
plan of running pipes from the steam chests back to the 
cab, where they were fitted with a sort of funnel with a 
shut-off cock attached, and the melted tallow was poured 
in there, and the vacuum in the valve chests when the 
throttle was closed caused the tallow to find its way to 
the valve seats. But, thanks to progress and invention, 
tallow has been displaced by refined cylinder oil, and the 
tallow cup has given way to the modern sight-feed lubri- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


103 


cator; consequently the lubrication of the valve has 
been much simplified, for the reason that the oil is con¬ 
stantly entering the valve chests drop by drop as it 
should. Of course the lubricator may get out of order at 
times, or the oil pipes become clogged, but these are 
troubles that are easily overcome as a rule. A few of 
the leading types of lubricators will be illustrated and 
described. 


THE M’CANNA FORCE FEED LUBRICATOR. 

The lubricator proper is placed on the regular standard 
for steam lubricators over the boiler in the cab. 

The actuating valve is placed at any convenient point 
on the engine where reciprocating motion can be ob¬ 
tained. 

The lever of the actuating valve is connected usually 
to the valve stem or rocker arm. This actuating valve 
is practically a rotary slide valve and is operated by a 
ratchet drive. 

It is connected to the main air drum on the engine bv 
a pipe connection with the air inlet shown in Fig. 44. 
The air ports are then connected to each side of the oper¬ 
ating piston of the lubricator reservoir shown in Fig. 45. 
This piston is connected to a cross-head carrying two rods 
extended clear through the lubricator reservoir to another 
cross-head which operates the four pump plungers. These 
pump plungers have adjustable nuts, so that while the 
stroke of the operating piston is constant, the stroke of 
the pump plungers can be adjusted separately. 

When the engine starts the reciprocating part com¬ 
municates its motion to the arm of the actuating valve. 



104 LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 

This revolves the circular valve, admitting the air to 
one side or the other of the piston of the lubricator 
proper. 


Fig. 42. McCanna Force Feed Locomotive Lubricator. 

This piston operates the pump, as explained above, and 
the oil is pumped to the point of lubrication by positive 
hydraulic pressure. 

At the point of lubrication is a check valve shown in 

























































































































106 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Fig. 45, similar to that shown on the top of the lubricat¬ 
or, in Fig. 44, which prevents the siphoning of the oil 
from the pipes and also prevents the back pressure blow¬ 
ing the oil out of the pipes. 



The gravity check valve is one of the principal features 
of the device. It consists of a cylindrical brass shell en¬ 
closing a hexagonal weight with a needle valve on its 
lower end closing the oil outlet. The oil to get to the 
point of lubrication has to raise this weight and needle 


Fig. 44. 




















































CARE AND OPERATION 


107 


valve from its seat, necessitating a pressure of about 2 5 
pounds. It then flows through the outlet to the bearing. 
The weight being hexagonal and having space above and 
below it, and on account of its hexagonal form all around 
it also, any back pressure from cylinder or air pump is 
exerted equally in all directions and there is no tendency 
to lift the valve from its seat, it being held down by 
gravity. 



Fig. 45. Oil Pump and Reservoir—'McCanna Force-Feed Locomotive 
Lubricator. 


One of these valves is located at each pump outlet at 
the oil reservoir and another at each lubrication point. 
The one over the reservoir serves two purposes, being 
provided with an additional outlet, by which the amount 
of oil being pumped can be tested at any moment, the 
oil thus showing dropping back into the oil reservoir. 

This method of “bleeder” test has been adopted instead 
of the ordinary liquid sight feed, as glycerine or water 
through which the oil passes in the ordinary sight feed 
becomes clouded after a time and requires renewal. 














108 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


It will be noted that this method of lubrication abso¬ 
lutely eliminates any chance of broken sight feed glasses 
and the injury which may result from such an accident. 

Lubrication, therefore, is in direct proportion to the 
speed, as the faster the engine travels the faster the actu¬ 
ating valve is revolved and the faster, therefore, the 
pumps are operated. 

The stoke of each pump being independently adjust¬ 
able, as much or as little oil can be fed to the point to 
be lubricated as is desired. 

When the engine stops the oiling stops. 

If excess of oil is wanted at any particular moment on 
any of the bearings for any purpose, it can be obtained 
by operating that particular pump plunger by hand. 

The advantages claimed for this lubricator are: 

Lubrication in proportion to speed. 

Pure oil, free from air or steam, delivered to bearings. 

Instantaneous delivery of oil against any pressure at 
first stroke of pump piston. 

Each pump has its individual adjustment and can be 
regulated while lubricator is in full operation. 

Elimination of all danger from broken sight feed 
glasses. 


The Nathan New Bull's Eye Lubricator. Fig. 46. 

General Features. The oil reservoir of the lubricator 
is of cylindrical form, which is generally acknowledged 
to be most suitable for high pressure. 

The lubricator is provided with hand oilers for the 
cylinder feeds, and with gauge glasses which indicate 
when the reservoir is nearly empty. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


109 


The lubricator carries a reserve glass, packed in its 
casing, ready for use whenever occasion requires. 

All glasses are packed in casings which screw into the 
body, making their removal for inspection or repairs very 
convenient. 



c c c 


Front View. 
Fig. 46. 


Direction for Application, i. Secure the lubricator to 
boiler head or top of boiler, in the usual manner. 

2. Connect for steam to fountain or turret, if large 




no 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


enough, otherwise direct to boiler. The steam pipe must 
not have less than J^-in. I. D. when iron pipe is used, 
and not less than fain. I. D. when copper pipe is used. 
Steam valves and their shanks must have openings fully 
in accordance with these dimensions. 



Fig. 47. New Nathan Lubricator, Front View. 

3. Oil pipes must have a continuous fall towards the 
steam-chest, without any “pockets” in them. 

Directions for Operation. Fill the cup with clean, 
strained oil through filling plug A, and immediately after 
filling, open water valve D. Open steam valve (not 
shown), wait until sight feed chambers are filled with 
water, then start and regulate the feed by opening regu¬ 
lating valves C, more or less, according to the feed de¬ 
sired. 



CARE AND OPERATION 


111 


To stop either of the feeds, close the respective regu¬ 
lating valve C. 

To renew supply of oil, close all valves marked C and 
valve D, draw off water at waste cock W, then fill the cup 
as before, and open water valve D, immediately after 
filling, whether the feed is started again, or not. 

,To oil by hand close the steam valve. Fill the hand 
oilers O, open the hand oiler valves, and when all the oil 
has entered the tallow pipes, close hand oiler valves and 
open steam valve wide. 

Notes, i. Always open the steam valve before the 
engine begins to do any work whatever, whether the feed 
is started right away or not, and keep it open as long as 
the engine is doing service of any kind. 

2. Keep the water valve D always open except dur¬ 
ing the period of filling the cup, as per directions. 

3. Once in two weeks, at least, blow out the cup with 
steam, opening all valves wide, with the exception of the 
filling plug, which should remain closed. 

4. When putting on the lubricator for the first time, 
or after it has been off for repairs, “follow up” the pack¬ 
ing nuts of the glasses, when the lubricator gets hot, so 
as to take up any “slack” caused by expansion. This will 
tend to keep the joints tight. 

The New Nathan Triple Sight-Feed Locomotive 
Lubricator. Direction for Application. 1. Secure the 
lubricator to boiler head or top of boiler by a strong 
brace, in some such form as illustrated. Fig. 48. 

2. Connect top of lubricator or dome to top of boiler or 
bridge pipe by copper or brass tubing, which must not be 
less under any circumstances than ^-in. inside measure¬ 
ment. 


112 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


3. Connect the oil or tallow pipes to the union coup¬ 
lings on top brackets of the lubricator. The elbow on the 
top front bracket on right side is for the oil pipe to the 
air brake pump. 



Fig. 48. New Nathan Lubricator, Side View with Steam and Tallow 
Pipes. 

4. Remove valves from plugs over steam chests in 
order to maintain proper lubrication when steaming. 

The sight-feed and gauge glasses of these lubricators 
are provided with proper shields and protectors, to pre¬ 
vent the flying of particles in case of a broken glass. 





CARE AND OPERATION 


113 


Directions for Use. Fill the cup with clean, strained 
oil through the filling plug A, and immediately after fill¬ 
ing, open the water valve D. Open the steam valve B, 
and start to regulate the feed by opening the regulating 
valves C more or less, according to the quantity desired. 



Fig. 49. The Detroit No. 21 Locomotive Lubricator. 

To stop either of the feeds, M close the respective regu¬ 
lating valve C. 

To renew the supply of oil, close all the C and D 
valves, draw off the water at the waste-cock W, then fill 


114 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the cup as before and open the water valve D immediate¬ 
ly after filling whether the feed is started again or not. 

Notes. I. Valves F F F must be always kept open ex¬ 
cept when one of the glasses breaks. In such case close 
valves C and F belonging to the broken glass and use 
the auxiliary oiler O on that glass on down grades, as a 
common cab oiler. 

The breaking of one glass does not interfere with the 
proper function of the others. 

2. Always open the steam valve before the engine be¬ 
gins to do any work whatever—whether the feed is 
started right away or not, and keep it open as long as 
the engine is doing service of any kind. 

3. Keep the water valve D always open except during 
the period of filling the cup, as per directions. 

4. Once in two weeks at least, blow out the cup with 
steam; open the valves wide, with the exception of the 
filling plug, which should remain closed. 

The Detroit No. 21 Triple Feed Locomotive Lub¬ 
ricator, with auxiliary oilers and gauge glass. Fig. 49. 

This device is simple in construction and simple of 
operation. 

The oil is maintained at a uniform temperature and will 
not chill. 

The feed is absolutely regular. 

All feeds are visible from two sides. 

An additional valve has been placed at the top of the 
lubricator to control the supply of steam from the boiler, 
making the device self-contained. 

Directions for Operating. When the lubricator is first 
applied, blow out thoroughly, then close all the valves. 

To Fill. Remove filler plug O and fill the reservoir 
with clean strained oil. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


115 


Steam Valve. The regular boiler valve should be left 
wide open, and the steam valve B at top of condenser 
must also be kept open wide while the locomotive is in 
service. 



Fig. 50. Detroit 4-Feed Lubricator. 


To Start Lubricator. I. Be sure that the regular boiler 
valve is open. Then open steam valve B at top of con¬ 
denser gradually until wide open and keep wide open 
while lubricator is in operation. Allow sufficient time for 


116 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


condenser and sight-feed glasses to fill with water. 2. 
Open water valve D. 3. Regulate flow of oil to right 
and left cylinders by valves E E, and to air pump by 
valve L. 

To Operate Auxiliary Oilers . See that valve H is 
closed. Then open valve X and fill body of oiler. Close 
X after filling and open valve H. 



Fig. 51. Automatic Steam Chest Plugs and Valves. 


To Retill Always close valves E E and L in advance 
of valve D. Open drain plug G, then filler plug O. Re¬ 
fill and proceed as before. 

Immediately after filling the lubricator do not fail to 
open the water feed valve D, in order to prevent any 
excessive pressure due to the expansion of the heated 
oil. 

Getting New or Rebuilt Locomotive Ready for Service. 
In getting a new or rebuilt locomotive ready for service, 


CARE AND OPERATION 


117 


disconnect oil pipes at steam chest, and blow out thor¬ 
oughly both oil pipes and automatic steam chest valves; 
also disconnect coupling to air pump and see that choke 
is free. 



Fig. 52. Detroit No. 21, Side View. 


Steam for lubricator should be taken from turret if 
large enough, or from dome through an independent dry 
pipe of i-in. iron pipe size or its equivalent. 

When the No. 31, or four-feed lubricator is applied to 



118 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the Vauclain type of compound, the two outer feeds are 
intended for high pressure cylinders. Two automatic 
steam chest plugs are furnished, stamped and tagged “H. 
P.,” having 3-32-in. chokes. The two remaining feeds 
lead to the low pressure cylinders, and two other auto¬ 
matic steam chest plugs are furnished to be used with 
them, stamped and tapped “L.P.” and having 1-16-in. 
chokes. 



Fig. 53. Detroit Lubricator Glass and Method of Packing— Direction 
of Pressure Indicated by Arrow. The Higher the Pressure the 
Better the Joint. 


Helpful Hints. Blowing Out. Blow out lubricator 
once a week. 

Filling. If there is not sufficient oil to fill the lubri¬ 
cator, always use water to make up the required quan¬ 
tity. This will enable the feeds to start promptly. 

The steam valve B must be opened wide when the 
locomotive is in service to allow condensation to enter 


CARE AND OPERATION 


119 


the condenser; otherwise condensation will be diverted 
to equalizing tubes. The feeds will gradually slow down 
as the water of condensation decreases. 

When getting a new or rebuilt engine ready for serv¬ 
ice or when using soda ash boiler compounds, or when 
running in bad water districts, impurities will be car¬ 
ried over into the condenser and will gradually accu¬ 
mulate at base of water valve until the water is complete¬ 
ly shut off. While this is taking place the feeds are af¬ 
fected the same as before described, and when this pas¬ 
sage is finally closed by the sediment feeds will cease 
altogether. 

How to rectify while locomotive is in service: Close 
all feeds and water valve; open drain cock 2105 and 
allow about *4 pint of water to drain off; close drain 
cock and open water valve quickly. The condenser 
pressure will then force this sediment into bottom of 
lubricator, where it can be blown out in the usual man¬ 
ner, when the lubricator is empty. 

Do not screw up too tightly the feed glass follower, 
as this will only serve to injure the packing. There is 
no danger of leakage at this point, as the glass and pack¬ 
ing are so designed that the greater the pressure the bet¬ 
ter the joint. 

Small Drop of Oil. The cause of a small drop of oil 
or the variation of size of drop during a trip. In alkali, 
salt water or oil well regions through which railroads 
pass, the water supply becomes impregnated with saline 
matter. This saline matter is carried over in the lubri¬ 
cator mechanically by the steam, so that the water in the 
sight feed glasses contains considerable of it and the 
amount increases £is the locomotive proceeds on the trip 
until it crystallizes around the feed cones, thus gradually 


120 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


diminishing the size of the opening for the drop. Should 
the engineer undertake to force the feed it will result in 
the oil flowing in a very slender stream, scarcely percept¬ 
ible. If this condition is not corrected the salt crystals 
will completely close the feed cone orifice. 

How to Rectify. Close all feed stems; open all sight 
feed drain stems and blow out thoroughly. The action 
of the stream on feed cones will dissolve the salt crystals. 
Allow reasonable time for condensation; start the feeds, 
and the drop of oil will be normal. 

Air Bound. This condition is almost invariably 
brought about whenever it becomes necessary to fill a 
lubricator on the road. The temperature of a lubricator 
at such times is very nearly that of the steam pressure 
temperature. Sometimes the water feed valve seat may 
leak, and in order to fill the lubricator in this heated con¬ 
dition it is found necessary to shut off all steam pressure 
to the lubricator, including the air pump, and owing to 
the high temperature of the condenser the water flashes 
into steam, practically emptying the condenser and feed 
glasses of all water. The oil reservoir being very hot, the 
oil expands rapidly and the filler plug is usually put in 
before the reservoir is full. The steam and water pres¬ 
sures are hurriedly turned on and the feeds are opened 
before sufficient time has elapsed for sufficient con¬ 
densation to accumulate. The feeds will not respond 
under such conditions, because the positive and negative 
pressures have equalized, and the lubricator is said to be 
air bound. 

How to Overcome. Open all feeds and any one of 
the sight feed drain stems. This will allow the water 
in the oil tubes and the air occupying the highest space 
in the oil reservoir to escape to atmosphere. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


121 


Principles Governing the Action of Lubricators. 

The following clear explanation of the action of the 
sight feed lubricators is reproduced from the Jan., 1906 
issue of the Locomotive Firemen’s Magazine, and may 
prove of benefit to beginners at least. 

We will assume that we have an ordinary sight-feed 
lubricator with a condensing chamber on top of the oil 
reservoir, a partition between the condensing chamber 
and the oil reservoir, a pipe or passage leading from the 
base of the condensing chamber to near the bottom of the 
oil reservoir, a pipe or passage for oil extending from or 
near the underside of the partition downward to near the 
bottom of the oil cup and branching out to the feed valves 
under the sight-feed glasses. When the cup is filled with 
oil and the valves opened, steam enters the condensing 
chamber and condenses. The water flows down the pipe 
and, being heavier than the oil, the oil is floated to the 
top of the oil reservoir and fills the passage to the sight- 
feed valves with oil. Now we have a pressure on the oil 
equal to the pressure of steam in the cup and the weight 
of the water in the pipe and condensing chamber, forc¬ 
ing the oil through or to the sight-feed nipples. (This 
would occur if the equalizing tube on a lubricator was 
stopped up and the glass was broken.) It does not matter 
whether the equalizing tubes are inside of the condensing 
chamber or outside, the principle is the same; the equal¬ 
izing tubes extend from near the top of the condensing 
chamber to the top of the chamber above the sight-feed 
glass and exert a pressure downward on the water in the 
glass; hence, are called equalizing tubes, because they 
equalize the pressure in the lubricator. The choke plug 


122 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


is a small opening which only allows a small amount of 
steam to escape into the oil pipe leading to the steam 
chest, but it carries any water that may accumulate above 
the level of the choke plug into the oil pipe. Now you 
will readily understand why they are called equalizing 
tubes; when the feed valve is open a drop of oil will 
form in the nipple of the sight-feed glass and, on ac¬ 
count of its being lighter than the water, it rises to the 
top of the water in the chamber above the sight-feed glass 
and is carried through the choke plug, forced into the 
oil pipe and to the steam chest by the steam from the 
equalizing tube when the pressure at the lubricator end 
of the pipe is greater than the pressure at the steam chest 
end of the pipe. 


MECHANICAL BELL RINGERS. 

Locomotive bell ringers are no longer a luxury—they 
are a necessity. 

The duties of the fireman, who used to ring the bell, 
have increased with the increased size and speed of loco¬ 
motive. A man furnishing coal to an up-to-date fire-box 
has little time to do much else when the machine is in 
motion. 

The engineer’s attention must not be taken from his 
work—cannot be with safety. 

The Samson Bell Ringer, Fig. 53a, lays claim to the 
following merits: 

Has no packed joints except the piston, which has 
heavy, leather packing. 

Valve is a plug cock held to seat by a coiled spring. 

Economical of air, because weight of bell compresses 


CARE AND OPERATION 


123 



Fig. 53-a. 


Sansom Bell Ringer. 






124 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


air in the cylinder almost to lifting point before ad¬ 
mission. 

Easily regulated to ring at any speed simply by con¬ 
trol of air supplied. 

OIL AS FUEL FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

The proper handling of fuel oil on a locomotive re¬ 
quires a greater degree of skill than is generally supposed 
to be the case, and the fact that a man may be an expert 
in the handling of coal does not go to show that he will 
succeed as an oil fireman. 

There are a great many things that may happen to an 
oil-burner which will affect the steaming qualities, so that 
it is necessary to see that everything is in proper condi¬ 
tion before starting. 

Nothing will cause an engine to fail in steam any 
quicker than when the flue sheet and flues get covered 
with soot. This soot is the result of forced firing, or, 
in other words, allowing more oil to flow into the burner 
than is necessary, or that will be properly consumed 
with the amount of work the engine may be doing. In 
order to remove this soot from the flues, sand is used. 
This is introduced into the firebox by means of a funnel 
through a small hole made in the door for that purpose, 
and the funnel should be held so that the sand will be 
carried over, instead of under, the arch. The amount 
of sand that should be used all depends on the amount 
of soot that is on the flues, and sand should be used until 
all black smoke disappears. 

The proper time to sand an engine is after leaving the 
roundhouse, when on the way to the train, as the flues 
generally get badly covered with soot resulting from 


CARE AND OPERATION 


125 


firing up, and this should be all removed as soon as pos¬ 
sible, but on account of the fact that a strong exhaust 
is necessary to properly clean out the flues, by carrying 
the sand over the arch and through the flues, it is gener¬ 
ally advisable to wait until starting out with train, for, 
if the exhaust is not heavy or strong enough, the sand 
will do more harm than good, by dropping down on the 
bricks in floor of firebox and in front of burner, thereby 
interfering with the free passage of oil from burner to 
front of firebox. It should be seen to before starting that 
the firebox in front of the burner is free from any bricks, 
and that the floor of firebox is as smooth as possible, for 
when the bricks get rough they have a tendency to drag 
the fire, and the result is that the fire must be forced 
and black smoke follows. 

To obtain thorough combustion in the firebox, a cor¬ 
rect combination of steam and oil must be had, and this 
is obtained by admitting steam in the burner so that it 
will thoroughly mix or atomize the oil and spray it into 
the firebox. To enable the oil to flow freely from the 
tank to the burner, it must be heated. This is done by 
means of connecting a pipe so that steam will be led into 
the tank from the boiler. The connection between the 
engine and tank is generally made by means of a hose. 
In some types of heaters the pipe forms a coil inside of the 
tank, and there is a drain cock underneath which allows 
the water resulting from the condensation of the steam 
to pass off. This method, however, has proved very un¬ 
satisfactory, as it requires too long a time to heat the 
oil and a great many delays have been occasioned by the 
failure of the oil to run fast enough to the burner to 
maintain the desired pressure of steam on engines 
equipped with this style of heater. The most successful 


126 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


method of heating the oil is by allowing steam from 
heater pipe to flow directly into the oil, thus heating it 
in a very short space of time. The oil should be heated 
as much as possible while standing still, and the tank 
heater-valve should then be opened up strong and left 
on until oil is hot, and then closed. In order that the 
oil may be heated just before it reaches the burner, a 
super-heater is used. This consists merely of a pipe about 
a foot long, but twice as large around as the oil feed pipe. 
An opening large enough to allow the oil feed pipe to 
pass through is left at each end, and a slight pressure 
of steam is sufficient to heat the oil is maintained therein. 
A drain-cock is also used to allow the water formed by 
the condensation of the steam to pass off. 

The drumming or rumbling sometimes occurring is 
the result of opening the atomizer-valve too much, or 
by allowing too much oil to flow to burner while en¬ 
gine is working slowly. If too much water is allowed to 
accumulate in the ashpan from the injector’s overflow, 
the exhaust will draw it up into the firebox and the fire 
will be extinguished. A good plan is to make a few small 
holes in the bottom of the pan s,o that any surplus water 
will pass out. A pipe is connected from the super-heater 
to the oil feed pipe so that in case the burner should 
become choked up from one cause or another, by open¬ 
ing this valve, closing tank-valve, and opening the firing 
valve, steam will pass from the super-heater to oil feed 
pipe and thence to burner, and will blow out any obstruc¬ 
tion that may be therein. 

Sometimes the oil feed pipe becomes choked up, and 
by opening the tank-valve and closing the firing-valve 
the steam from super-heater flows back through feed pipe 
and blows any obstruction that may be in it back in the 


CARE AND OPERATION 


127 


tank. It must be seen to that this blow-back valve, as it 
is called, is closed properly after having blown out the 
burner or the feed hose, for, should it be left open, it 
would interfere with the flow of oil to the burner and the 
fire will burn in a series of explosions. 

Should the tank heater hose burst, so that oil in tank 
could not be heated in the proper manner, after closing 
the dampers and putting the fire out at the first stopping 
place, the oil may be heated in the following manner: 
Close firing-valve, open tank-valve if it is not already 
open, and by opening the blow-back valve the oil will be 
heated sufficiently. 

Oil-burning locomotives are supposed to consume their 
own smoke, and if conditions are as they should be, they 
will. The conditions which give a smokeless oil-burning 
locomotive are so nicely balanced, however, that a very 
small margin is left to keep them in that condition. 

It seems to be essential to first place the burner as low 
as possible, then tip it slightly up at the point, so that it 
flows or rolls in a natural course. If the point is tipped 
down, the tendency under light working is to strike the 
forward wall, then down according to the law of deflec¬ 
tion, it must strike the front wall, then floor, and cut the 
path of the ingoing oil, which produces smoke and poor 
combustion. 

It seems to be nearly as essential to admit the air over 
as large a surface as in burning coal, so that it may not 
deflect the flame and cool it at one point. If the con¬ 
struction is right, the handling and maintenance are just 
as important, and if properly handled there should be no 
smoke. But when there is absolutely no smoke, we are 
on the danger line in another direction, where the drop¬ 
ping of the lever or slipping of the engine will snuff out 


128 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the fire, draw in cold air, and cause the flues to leak. In 
pulling out and getting under way, it is believed to be 
better practice to have a color of smoke than absolutely 
smokeless, to insure against this possibility, as many 
failures can be attributed to this cause. 

A radical change from the ordinary methods of burn¬ 
ing oil in locomotives has been inaugurated on the South¬ 
ern Pacific Railway bv Mr. T. W. Heintzleman, Supt. of 
Motive Power, and Mr. J. G. Camp, General Foreman, 
at Sacramento, Cal. ' 

It has been the usual practice to introduce the oil at the 
back end of the firebox, projecting the flame towards the 
front, and generally under a firebrick arch extending back¬ 
ward from the tube sheet, but Mr. Heintzleman and Mr. 
Camp reverse this method and introduce the oil through 
a burner placed in the front end of the firebox, projecting 
the fuel backward against a vertical fire brick wall built 
at the rear of the firebox, and below the fire door. 

The usual fire brick arch is dispensed with altogether. 

At the back end of the firebox an opening through the 
plate floor, that takes the place of the ash pan, admits air 
vertically upward against the flame immediately in front 
of the fire brick wall. 

In some cases the atomizer passes through a hollow 
stay bolt in the front water leg. 

There is no obstruction in the firebox, and the air com¬ 
ing direct upon the flame from beneath, deflects it in an 
upward direction, where it turns to travel forward to¬ 
wards the tubes. This gives a long flame-way for the fuel, 
and subjects a larger portion of the surface of the fire¬ 
box to a direct heat, and prevents the concentration of the 
heat in certain portions of the box, which is liable to 
occur in connection with the usual method. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


129 


It is said that in the saving in the cost of the fire brick 
arches alone the saving due to this method is enormous, 
and to this must be added a very material improvement 
in the matter of injury to the firebox sheets, which is 
a serious difficulty in large locomotives where the fire 
with fuel oil is greatly forced. 

COMBUSTION. 

One of the duties that a fireman owes to himself, as 
well as to his employers, is that he utilizes his spare 
moments in the study of the theory of combustion, the 
composition of coal, the nature of heat, and various other 
problems connected with the generation of steam. He 
will be called upon to undergo an examination as to his 
knowledge of these questions at some stage of his ap¬ 
prenticeship, and the more intelligence he displays and the 
more thorough his answers, the faster will be his pro¬ 
motion. Therefore the author considers it fitting and 
proper that a space be given over at this point for the 
discussion of these important subjects. 

One of the main factors in the combustion of coal is 
the proper supply of air. Air is composed of two gases, 
oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportion, by volume, of 
21 per cent of oxygen and 79 per cent of nitrogen, or by 
weight, 23 per cent of oxygen and 77 per cent of nitrogen. 

The composition of pure dry air is as follows: 

By volume, 20.91 parts O. and 79.09 parts N. 

By weight, 23.15 parts O. and 76.85 parts N. 

Air is a mixture and not a chemical combination of 
these two elements. The principal constituent of coal 
and most other fuels, whether solid, liquid or gaseous, 
is carbon. Hydrogen is a light combustible gas and, 


130 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


combined either with carbon or with carbon and oxygen, 
in various proportions, is also a valuable constituent of 
fuels, notably of bituminous coal. The heating value of 
one pound of pure carbon is rated at 14,500 heat units, 
while one pound of hydrogen gas contains 62,000 heat 
units. 

Analysis of coal shows that it contains moisture, fixed 
carbon, volatile matter, ash and sulphur in various pro¬ 
portions according to the quality of the coal. The follow¬ 
ing table will show the composition of the principal bitu¬ 
minous coals in use in this country for steam purposes. 
Two samples are selected from each of the great coal 
producing states, with the exception of Illinois, from 
which four were taken. 


Table i 


State 

Kind of Coal 

Moist¬ 

ure 

Vola¬ 

tile 

Matter 

Fixed 

Carbon 

Ash 

Sul¬ 

phur 

Pennsylvania 

Youghiogheny 

I.03 

36.49 

59.05 

2.61 

0.81 

Connellsville 

1.26 

30.10 

59.61 

8.23 

0.78 

West Virginia 

« 4 

Quinimont 

0.76 

18.65 

79.26 

MI 

0.23 

Fire Creek 

0.61 

22.34 

75.02 

1.47 

0.56 

E. Kentucky 

Peach Orchard 

4.60 

35.70 

53.28 

6.42 

I.08 

• 4 

Pike County 

I.80 

26.80 

67.60 

3.80 

O.97 

Alabama 

Cahaba 

1.66 

33.28 

63.04 

2.02 

0.53 

• 1 

Pratt Co.’s 

1.47 

32.29 

59-50 

6.73 

1.22 

Ohio 

Hocking Valley 

6.59 

35.77 

49.64 

8.00 

1.59 

“ 

Muskingum 44 

3-47 

37-88 

53.30 

5.35 

2.24 

Indiana 

Block 

8.50 

31.00 

57.50 

3.00 


" 

<« 

3.50 

44-75 

51.25 

1.50 


W. Kentucky 

Nolin River 

4.70 

33.24 

54.94 

11.70 

2.54 

Ohio County 

3.70 

30.70 

45.oo 

316 

1.24 

Illinois 

Big Muddy 

6.40 

30.60 

54.60 

8.30 

1.50 

4 4 

Wilmington 

15.50 

32.80 

39.90 

11.80 


44 

“ screenings 

14.00 

28.00 

34.20 

23.80 



Duquoin 

8.90 

23.50 

60.60 

7.00 













CARE AND OPERATION 


131 


The process of combustion consists in the union of the 
carbon and hydrogen of the fuel with the oxygen of the 
air. Each atom of carbon combines with two atoms of 
oxygen, and the energetic vibration set up by their com¬ 
bination is heat. Bituminous coal contains a large per¬ 
centage of volatile matter which is released and flashes 
into flame when the coal is thrown into the furnace, and 
unless air is supplied in large amounts at this stage of 
the combustion there will be an excess of smoke and 
consequent loss of carbon. On the other hand, there is 
a loss in admitting too much air, because the surplus is 
heated to the temperature of the furnace without aiding 
the combustion and will carry off to the stack just as 
many heat units as were required to raise it from the 
temperature at which it entered the fire-box to that at 
which it leaves the flues. Some kinds of coal need more 
air for their combustion than do others, and good judg¬ 
ment and close observation are needed on the part of the 
fireman to properly regulate the supply. 

The quantity of air required for the combustion of 
one pound of coal is, by volume, about 150 cu. ft.; by 
weight, about 12 lbs. 

The temperature of the fire-box is usually about 2500°, 
in some cases reaching as high as 3000°. The tempera¬ 
ture of the escaping gases should not be much above nor 
below 400° F. for bituminous coal. 

In order to attain the highest economy in the burning 
of coal in boiler furnaces two factors are indispensable, 
viz., a constant high furnace temperature and quick com¬ 
bustion, and these factors can only be secured by supply¬ 
ing the fresh coal constantly just as fast as it is burned, 
and also by preventing as much as possible the admission 
of cold air at the furnace. The nitrogen in the atmo- 


132 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


sphere does not promote combustion, but it enters the fire¬ 
box along with the oxygen, and the heat required to raise 
its temperature to that of the other gases is practically 
wasted, and as has already been explained, if a surplus 
of cold air is allowed to pass into the fire-box the waste 
of heat becomes still greater. 

Heat. All matter, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, 
consists of molecules or atoms, which are in a state of 
continual vibration, and the result of this vibration is 
heat. The intensity of the heat evolved depends upon 
the degree of agitation to which the molecules are sub¬ 
ject. Until as late as the beginning of the nineteenth 
century two rival theories in regard to the nature of heat 
had been advocated by scientists. The older of these 
theories was that heat was a material substance, a subtle 
elastic fluid termed caloric, and that this fluid penetrated 
matter as water penetrates a sponge. But this theory 
was shown to be false by the wonderful researches and 
experiments of Count Rumford at Munich, Bavaria, in 
1798. 

By means of the friction between two heavy metallic 
bodies placed in a wooden trough filled with water, one 
of the pieces of metal being rotated by machinery driven 
by horses, Count Rumford succeeded in raising the tem¬ 
perature of the water in two and one-half hours from its 
original temperature of 6o° to 212° F., the boiling point, 
thus demonstrating that heat is not a material substance, 
but that it is due to vibration or motion, an internal com¬ 
motion among the molecules of matter. This theory, 
known as the Kinetic theory of heat, has since been gen¬ 
erally accepted, although it was nearly fifty years after 
Rumford advocated it in a paper read before the Royal 
Society of Great Britain in 1798, before scientists gen- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


133 


erally became converted to this idea of the nature of heat, 
and the science of Thermo Dynamics was placed on a 
firm basis. 

During the period from 1840 to 1849 Dr. Joule made 
a series of experiments which not only confirmed the 
truth of Count Rumford’s theory that heat was not a 
material substance but a form of energy which may be 
applied to or taken away from bodies, but Joule’s ex¬ 
periments also established a method of estimating in 
mechanical units or foot pounds the amount of that en¬ 
ergy. This latter was a most important discovery, be¬ 
cause by means of it the exact relation between heat and 
work can be accurately measured. 

The first law of thermo dynamics is this: Heat and 
mechanical energy or work are mutually convertible. 
That is, a certain amount of work will produce a certain 
amount of heat, and the heat thus produced is capable 
of producing by its disappearance a fixed amount of 
mechanical energy if rightly applied. The mechanical 
energy in the form of heat which, through the medium 
of the steam engine, has revolutionized the world, was 
first stored up by the sun’s heat millions of years ago in 
the coal, which in turn, by combustion, is made to re¬ 
lease it for purposes of mechanical work. 

The general principles of Dr. Joule’s device for meas¬ 
uring the amount of work in heat are illustrated in Fig. 
54. It consisted of a small copper cylinder containing 
a known quantity of water at a known temperature. In¬ 
side the cylinder and extending through the top was a 
vertical shaft to which were fixed paddles for stirring the 
water. Stationary vanes were also placed inside the 
cvlinder. Motion was imparted to the shaft through the 
medium of a cord or small rope coiled around a drum 


134 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


near the top of the shaft and running over a grooved 
pulley or sheave. To the free end of the cord a known 
weight was attached. This weight was allowed to fall 
through a certain distance, and in falling it turned the 




D - oGlsOvyn. 


P - fiadd te9 
$?. V-/S’ia.t/c/vaxy Vantf 

etc*. 


-I 
- 1 




Fig. 54. 

shaft with its paddles, which in turn agitated the water, 
thus producing a certain amount of heat. To illustrate, 
suppose the weight to be 77.8 lbs., and that by means of 
the crank at the top end of the shaft it has been raised 
to the zero mark at the top of the scale. (See Fig. 54.) 






































CARE AND OPERATION 


135 


One pound of water at 39. i° F. is poured into the copper 
cylinder, which is then closed and the *weight released. 
At the moment the weight passes the 10 ft. mark on the 
scale the thermometer attached to the cylinder will in¬ 
dicate that the temperature of the water has been raised 
one degree. Then multiplying the number of pounds in 
the weight by the distance in feet through which it fell 
will give the number of foot pounds of work done. Thus, 
77.8 lbs. X 10 ft. = 778 foot pounds. 

The heat unit or British thermal unit (B. T. U.) is 
the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature 
of one pound of water one degree, or from 39 0 to 40° 
F., and the amount of mechanical work required to pro¬ 
duce a unit of heat is 778 foot pounds. Therefore the 
mechanical equivalent of heat is the energy required to 
raise 778 lbs. one foot high, or 77.8 lbs. 10 ft. high, or 
1 lb. 778 feet high. Or again, suppose a one-pound 
weight falls through a space of 778 ft. or a weight of 
778 lbs. falls one foot, enough mechanical energy would 
thus be developed to raise a pound of water one degree 
in temperature, provided all the energy so developed 
could be utilized in churning or stirring the water, as in 
Joule’s machine. Hence the mechanical equivalent of 
heat is 778 foot pounds. 

Specific Heat. The specific heat of any substance 
is the ratio of the quantity of heat required to raise a 
given weight of that substance one degree in temperature 
to the quantity of heat required to raise an equal weight 
of water one degree in temperature when the water is at 
its maximum density, 39. i° F. To illustrate, take the 
specific heat of lead, for instance, which is .031, while 
the specific heat of water is 1. That means that it would 
require 31 times as much heat to raise one pound of water 


136 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


one degree in temperature as it would to raise the tem¬ 
perature of a pound of lead one degree. 

The following table gives the specific heat of different 
substances in which engineers are most generally inter¬ 
ested. 

Table 2 


Water at 39. i° F.1.000 

Ice at 32 0 F. 5°4 

Steam at2i2° F.480 

Mercury.033 

Cast iron.130 

Wrought iron.113 

Soft steel .116 

Copper .095 

Lead .031 

Coal .240 

Air... 238 

Hydrogen .3404 

Oxygen .218 

Nitrogen .244 


Sensible Heat and Latent Heat. The plainest and 
most simple definition of these two terms is that given 
by Sir Wm. Thomson. He says: “Heat given to a body 
and warming it is sensible heat. Heat given to a body 
and not warming it is latent heat.” Sensible heat in a 
substance is the heat that can be measured in degrees of 
a thermometer, while latent heat is the heat in any sub¬ 
stance that is not shown by the thermometer. 

To illustrate this more fully, a brief reference to some 
experiments made by Professor Black in 1762 will no 
doubt make the matter plain. It will be remembered that 
















CARE AND OPERATION 


137 


at that early date comparatively little was known of the 
true nature of heat; hence Professor Black’s investiga¬ 
tions and discoveries along this line appear all the more 
wonderful. He procured equal weights of ice at 32° F. 
and water at the same temperature, that is, just at the 
freezing point, and placing them in separate glass vessels, 
suspended the vessels in a room in which the uniform 
temperature was 47 0 F. He noticed that in one-half hour 
the water had increased 7 0 F. in temperature, but that 
twenty half hours elapsed before all of the ice was melted. 
Therefore he reasoned that twenty times more heat had 
entered the ice than had entered the water, because at 
the end of the twenty half hours, when the ice was all 
melted, the water in both vessels was of the same tem¬ 
perature. The water, having absorbed 7 0 of heat dur¬ 
ing the first half hour, must have continued to absorb 
heat at the same rate during the whole of the twenty 
half hours, although the thermometer did not indicate 
it. From this he calculated that 7 0 X 20 = 140° of 
heat had become latent or hidden in the water. 

In another experiment Professor Black placed a lump 
of melting ice, which he estimated to be at a temperature 
of 33 0 F. on the surface, in a vessel containing the same 
weight of water at 176° F., and he observed that when 
the whole of the ice had been melted the temperature of 
the water was 33 0 F., thus proving that 143 0 of heat 
(176° — 33 0 ) had been absorbed in melting the ice and 
was at that moment latent in the water. By these two 
experiments Professor Black established the theory of 
the latent heat of water, and his estimate was very near 
the truth, because the results obtained since that time 
by the greatest experimenters show that the latent heat 
of water is 142 heat units, or B. T. U. 


138 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Black’s experiment for ascertaining the latent heat in 
steam at atmospheric pressure was made in the follow¬ 
ing simple manner: He placed a flat, open tin dish on 
a hot plate over a fire and into the dish he put a small 
quantity of water at 50° F. In four minutes the water 
began to boil, and in twenty minutes more it had all evap¬ 
orated. In the first four minutes the temperature had 
increased 212 0 — 50° = 162°, and the temperature re¬ 
mained at 212 0 throughout the twenty minutes that it 
required to evaporate all the water, despite the fact that 
the water had been receiving heat during this period 
at the same rate as during the first four minutes. He 
therefore reasoned that in the twenty minutes the water 
had absorbed five times as much heat as it had in the four 
minutes, or 162° X 5 = 8io°, without any sensible rise 
in temperature. Therefore the 8io° became latent in 
the steam. Owing to the crude nature of the experi¬ 
ment Professor Black’s estimate of the number of de¬ 
grees of latent heat in steam was incorrect, as it has 
been proven by many famous experimenters since then 
that the latent heat of steam at atmospheric pressure is 

9657 B. T. U. 

It will thus be perceived that what is meant by the 
term latent heat is that quantity of heat which becomes 
hidden or latent when the state of a body is changed 
from a solid to a liquid, as in the case of melting ice, or 
from a liquid to a gaseous state, as with water evaporated 
into steam. But the heat so disappearing has not been 
lost; on the contrary it has, while becoming latent, been 
doing an immense amount of work, as can easily be as¬ 
certained by means of a few simple figures. It has been 
seen that a heat unit is the quantity of heat required to 
raise one pound of water one degree in temperature and 


CARE AND OPERATION 


139 


also that the mechanical equivalent of heat, or, in other 
words, the mechanical energy stored in one heat unit, is 
equal to 778 foot pounds of work. 

A horse power equals 33,000 ft. lbs. of energy in one 
minute of time, and a heat unit = 778 33,000 = .0236, 

or about 1-43 of a horse power. The work done by the 
heat which becomes latent in converting one pound of ice 
at 32 0 F. into water at the same temperature = 142 heat 
units X 778 ft. lbs. = 110,476 ft. lbs., which divided by 
33,000 equals 3.34 horse power. Again, by the evapora¬ 
tion of one pound of water from 32 0 F. into steam at at¬ 
mospheric pressure, 965.7 units of heat become latent in 
the steam and the work done = 965.7 X 778 = 751,314 
ft. lbs. = 22.7 horse power. It will thus be seen what 
tremendous energy lies stored in one pound of coal, which 
contains from 12,000 to 14,500 heat units, provided all 
the heat could be utilized in an engine. 

Total Heat of Evaporation. In order to raise the 
temperature of one pound of water from the freezing 
point, 32 0 F., to the boiling point, 212 0 F., there must 
be added to the temperature of the water 212° — 32 0 = 
180 0 . This represents the sensible heat. Then to make 
the water boil at atmospheric pressure, or, in other words, 
to evaporate it, there must still be added 965.7 B. T. U., 
thus 180 + 965.7 = 1,145.7, or ' m round numbers 1,146 
heat units. This represents what is termed the total heat 
of evaporation at atmospheric pressure and is the sum of 
the sensible and latent heat in steam at that pressure. But 
if a thermometer were held in steam evaporating into 
the open air, as for instance, in front of the spout of a tea 
kettle, it would indicate but 212 0 F. 

When steam is generated at a higher pressure than 
212 0 , the sensible heat increases and the latent heat de- 


140 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


creases slowly, while at the same time the total heat of 
evaporation slowly increases as the pressure increases, 
but not in the same ratio. As, for instance, the total heat 
in steam at atmospheric pressure is 1,146 B. T. U., while 
the total heat in steam at 100 lbs. gauge pressure is 1,185 
B. T. U., and the sensible temperature of steam at atmos¬ 
pheric pressure is 212 0 , while at 100 lbs. gauge pressure 
the temperature is 338 and the latent heat is 876 B. T. U. 
See Table 4. 

Water. The elements that enter into the composition 
of pure water are the two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, 
in the following proportions: 

By volume, hydrogen 2, oxygen 1. 

By weight, “ 11.1, “ 88.9. 

Perfectly pure water is not attainable, neither is it 
desirable nor necessary to the welfare of the human race, 
because the presence of certain proportions of air and 
ammonia add greatly to its value as an agent for manu¬ 
facturing purposes and for generating steam. The near¬ 
est approach to pure water is rain water, but even this 
contains 2.5 volumes of air to each 100 volumes of water. 
Pure distilled water, such for instance a. c the return 
water from steam heating systems, is not desirable for 
use alone in a boiler, as it will cause corrosion and pitting 
of the sheets, but if it is mixed with other water before 
going into the boiler its use is highly beneficial, as it will 
prevent to a certain degree the formation of scale and 
incrustation. Nearly all water used for the generation of 
steam in boilers contains more or less scale-forming 
matter, such as the carbonates of lime and magnesia, 
the sulphates of lime and magnesia, oxide of iron, silica 
and organic matter, which latter tends to cause foaming 
in boilers. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


141 


The carbonates of lime and magnesia are the chief 
causes of incrustation. The sulphate of lime forms a 
hard crystalline scale which is extremely difficult to re¬ 
move when once formed on the sheets and tubes of boil¬ 
ers. Of late years the intelligent application of chemistry 
to the analyzing of feed waters has been of great benefit 
to engineers and steam users, in that it has enabled them 
to properly treat the water with solvents either before it 
is pumped into the boiler or by the introduction into the 
boiler of certain scale preventing compounds especially 
for treating the particular kind of water used. Where it 
is necessary to treat water in this manner, great care 
and watchfulness should be exercised by the engineer in 
the selection and use of a boiler compound. 

From io to 40 grains of mineral matter per gallon are 
held in solution by the waters of the different rivers, 
streams and lakes; well and mine water contain more. 

Water contracts and becomes denser in cooling until 
it reaches a temperature of 39.i° F., its point of greatest 
density. Below this temperature it expands, and at 32 0 
F. it becomes solid or freezes, and in the act of freezing 
expands considerably, as every engineer who has to deal 
with frozen water pipes can testify. 

Water is 815 times heavier than atmospheric air. The 
weight of a cubic foot of water at 39. i° is approximately 
62.5 lbs., although authorities differ on this matter, some 
of them placing it at 62.379 lbs., and others at 62.425 lbs. 
per cubic foot. As its temperature increases its weight 
per cubic foot decreases, until at 212 0 F. one cubic foot 
weighs 59.76 lbs. 

The table which follows is compiled from various 
sources and gives the weight of a cubic foot of water 
at different temperatures. 


142 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Table 3 


Temper¬ 

ature 

Weight per 
Cubic Foot 

Temper¬ 

ature 

Weight per 
Cubic Foot 

Temper¬ 

ature 

Weight per 
Cubic Foot 

32 ° F. 

62.42 lbs. 

132 0 F. 

61.52 lbs. 

230° F. 

59.37 lbs. 

42 0 

62.42 

142* 

61.34 

240° 

59.10 

52 ° 

62.40 

152- 

61.14 

2 50° 

58.85 

62° 

62.36 

162° 

60.94 

260° 

58.52 

72 ° 

62.30 

172° 

60.73 

270° 

58.21 

82° 

62.21 

182 ° 

60.50 

300° 

57.26 

92 ° 

62.II 

IQ2° 

60.27 

330° 

56.24 

102° 

62.00 

202 ° 

60.02 

360° 

55.i6 

112° 

61.86 

212° 

59-76 

390° 

54.03 

122° 

6l. 70 

220° 

59.64 

420° 

52.86 


The boiling point of water varies according to the 
pressure to which it is subject. In the open air at sea 
level the boiling point is 212° F. When confined in a 
boiler under steam pressure the boiling point of water 
depends upon the pressure and temperature of the steam, 
as, for instance, at 100 lbs. gauge pressure the tempera¬ 
ture of the steam is 338° F., to which temperature the 
water must be raised before its molecules will separate 
and be converted into steam. In the absence of any pres¬ 
sure, as in a perfect vacuum, water boils at 32 0 F. tem¬ 
perature. In a vacuum of 28 in., corresponding to an 
absolute pressure of .943 lbs., water will boil at ioo°, and 
in a vacuum of 26 in., at which the absolute pressure is 
2 lbs., the boiling point of water is 127 0 F. On the tops 
of high mountains in a rarefied atmosphere water will 
boil at a much lower temperature than at sea level; for 
instance, at an altitude of 15,000 ft. above sea level water 
boils at 184° F. 

Steam. Having discussed to some extent the phys¬ 
ical properties of water, it is now in order to devote some 
time to the study of the nature of steam, which is simply 















CARE AND OPERATION 


143 


water in its gaseous form, made so by the application of 
heat. 

As has been stated in another portion of this book, 
matter consists of molecules or atoms inconceivably small 
in size, yet each having an individuality, and in the case 
of solids or liquids, each having a mutual cohesion or 
attraction for the other, and all being in a state of con¬ 
tinual vibration more or less violent according to the 
temperature of the body. 

The law of gravitation, which holds the universe to¬ 
gether, also exerts its wonderful influence on these atoms 
and causes them to hold together with more or less te¬ 
nacity according to the nature of the substance. Thus it 
is much more difficult to chip off pieces of iron or granite 
than it is of wood. But in the case of water and other 
liquids the atoms, while they adhere to each other to a 
certain extent, still are not so hard to separate; in fact, 
they are to some extent repulsive to each other, and unless 
confined within certain bounds the atoms will gradually 
scatter and spread out, and finally either be evaporated or 
sink out of sight in the earth’s surface. Heat applied to 
any substance tends to accelerate the vibrations of the 
molecules, and if enough heat is applied it will reduce 
the hardest substances to a liquid or gaseous state. 

The process of the generation of steam from water 
is simply an increase of the natural vibrations of the 
molecules, of the water, caused by the application of heat, 
until they lose all attraction for each other and become 
instead entirely repulsive, and unless confined will fly off 
into space. But, being confined, they continually strike 
against the sides of the containing vessel, thus causing 
the pressure which steam or any other gas exerts when 
under confinement. 


144 


locomotive boilers 


Of course steam, like other gases, when under pressure 
is invisible, but the laws governing its action are well 
known. These laws, especially those relating to the ex¬ 
pansion of steam, will be more fully discussed in the 
chapter on the Indicator. The temperature of steam in 
contact with the water from which it is generated, as for 
instance in the ordinary steam boiler, depends upon the 
pressure under which it is generated. Thus at atmos¬ 
pheric pressure its temperature is 212° F. If the vessel 
is closed and the pressure increased the temperature of 
the steam and also that of the water rises. 

Saturated Steam. When steam is taken directly from 
the boiler to the engine without being superheated, it is 
termed saturated steam. This does not necessarily imply 
that it is wet and mixed with spray and moisture. 

Superheated Steam . When steam is conducted into or 
through a vessel or coils of pipe separate from the boiler 
in which it was generated and is there heated to a higher 
temperature than that due to its pressure, it is said to be 
superheated. 

Dry Steam. When steam contains no moisture it is 
said to be dry. Dry steam may be either saturated or 
superheated. 

Wet Steam. When steam contains mist or spray in¬ 
termingled, it is termed wet steam, although it may have 
the same temperature as dry saturated steam of the same 
pressure. 

During the further consideration of steam in this book, 
saturated steam will be mainly under discussion, for the 
reason that this is the normal condition of steam as used 
most generally in steam engines. 

Total Heat of Steam. The total heat in steam includes 
the heat required to raise the temperature of the water 


CARE AND OPERATION 


145 


from 32° F. to the temperature of the steam plus the heat 
required to evaporate the water at that temperature. 
This latter heat becomes latent in the steam, and is there¬ 
fore called the latent heat of steam. 

The work done by the heat acting within the mass of 
water and causing the molecules to rise to the surface is 
termed by scientists internal work, and the work done 
in compressing the steam already formed in the boiler or 
in pushing it against the superincumbent atmosphere, if 
the vessel be open, is termed external work. There are, 
therefore, in reality three elements to be taken into con¬ 
sideration in estimating the total heat of steam, but as the 
heat expended in doing external work is done within the 
mass itself, it may, for practical purposes, be included in 
the general term latent heat of steam. 

Density of Steam. The expression density of steam 
means the actual weight in pounds or fractions of a 
pound avoirdupois of a given volume of steam, as one 
cubic foot. This is a very important point for young 
engineers especially to remember, so as not to get the 
two terms, pounds pressure and pounds weight, mixed, 
as some are prone to do. 

Volume of Steam. By this term is meant the volume 
as expressed by the number of cubic feet in one pound 
weight of steam. 

Relative Volume of Steam. This expression has refer¬ 
ence to the number of volumes of steam produced from 
one volume of water. Thus the steam produced by the 
evaporation of one cubic foot of water from 39 0 F. into 
steam at atmospheric, pressure will occupy a space of 
1646 cu. ft., but, as the steam is compressed and the pres¬ 
sure allowed to rise, the relative volume of the steam, be¬ 
comes smaller, as, for instance, at 100 lbs. gauge pressure 


146 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the steam produced from one cubic foot of water will 
occupy but 237.6 cu. ft., and if the same steam was com¬ 
pressed to 1,000 lbs. absolute or 985.3 lbs. gauge pressure 
it would then occupy only 30 cu. ft. 


Table 4 

Properties of Saturated Steam 


Vacuum 

Inches of Mercury 

Absolute 

Pressure 

Lbs. per Sq. Inch 

Temp. 

Degrees F. 

Total Heat 
above 32 0 F. 

Latent Heat 

H-h 

Heat units 

Relative Volume 

Cubic Feet in 

1 Lb. Wt. of Steam 

1 Wt. of 1 Cubic Foot 
j of Steam, Lbs. 

In the Water 
h 

Heat-units 

In the Steam 
H 

Heat-units 

29 74 

.089 

32 . 

O. 

1091 7 

1091.7 

208,080 

3333-3 

.0003 

29.67 

.122 

40. 

8. 

1094.1 

1086.1 

154,330 

2472.2 

.0004 

29.56 

.176 

50 

18. 

1097-2 

1079.2 

107,630 

1724.1 

.0006 

20.40 

.254 

60. 

28.01 

I100.2 

1072.2 

76,370 

1223.4 

.0008 

2 Q.I 9 

•359 

70 . 

38.02 

1103.3 

1065.3 

54,660 

875.61 

.OOII 

*7 7 

28.90 

.502 

80. 

48.04 

1106.3 

1058.3 

39,690 

635.80 

.0016 

28.51 

.692 

90. 

58.06 

I109.4 

1051.3 

29,290 

469.20 

.0021 

28.00 

•943 

IOO. 

68.08 

1112.4 

1044.4 

21,830 

349.70 

.0028 

27.88 

1. 

102.1 

70.09 

1113.1 

IO43.O 

20,623 

334.23 

0030 

25.85 

2. 

126.3 

94.44 

1120.5 

1026.0 

10,730 

173.23 

.0058 

23.83 

3. 

141.6 

109.9 

1125.1 

IOI 5.3 

7,325 

II8.00 

.0085 

21.78 

4 - 

I 53 -I 

121.4 

1128.6 

1007.2 

5,588 

89.80 

.0111 

19.74 

5 . 

162.3 

130.7 

1131*4 

1000.7 

4,530 

72.50 

.0137 

17 . 70 

6. 

170.1 

138.6 

1133.8 

995.2 

3 816 

6 l.I 0 

.OI63 

15.67 

7 . 

176.9 

145.4 

1135.9 

990.5 

3,302 

53-00 

.0189 

13.63 

8. 

182.9 

15 1 .5 

1137.7 

986.2 

2,912 

46.60 

.0214 

11.60 

9 - 

188.3 

156.9 

1139.4 

982.4 

2,607 

41.82 

.0239 

9.56 

10. 

193.2 

161.9 

1140.9 

979.0 

2,361 

37.80 

.0264 

/.52 

11. 

197.8 

166.5 

1142.3 

975.8 

2,159 

34.61 

.0289 

5-49 

12. 

202.0 

170.7 

1 143.5 

972.8 

1,990 

3I.9O 

.0314 

345 

13. 

205.9 

174.7 

1144.7 

970.0 

1,846 

29.60 

.0338 

1.41 

14. 

209.6 

178.4 

H 45.9 

967.4 

1,721 

27.50 

.0363 

0.00 

14.7 

212.0 

180.9 

1146.6 

1 965.7 

1,646 

26.^6 

.0379 




























CARE AND OPERATION 


147 


Table 4 —Continued 


Gauge Pressure 
Lbs. per Sq. In. 

Absolute Pressure 
Lbs. per Sq. In. 

Temp. 

Degrees F. 

Total Heat 
Above 32 0 F. 

Latent Heat 

H-h 

Heat-units 

Relative Volume 

Cubic Feet in 

I Lb. Wt. of Steam 

Wt. of 1 Cubic Foot 

of Steam, Lbs. 

In the Water 
h 

Heat-units 

In the Steam 
H 

Heat-units 

0.3 

15 

213.3 

181.9 

1146.9 

965.0 

1,614 

25.90 

.0387 

1-3 

. 16 

216.3 

185.3 

1147.9 

962.7 

1,519 

24-33 

.0411 

2.3 

17 

219.4 

188.4 

1148.9 

960.5 

1,434 

23.OO 

.0435 

3-3 

18 

222.4 

I9I-4 

1149.8 

958.3 

1,359 

21.80 

.0459 

4-3 

19 

225.2 

194.3 

1150.6 

956.3 

1,292 

20.70 

.0483 

5-3 

20 

227.9 

197.O 

II5I.5 

954-4 

1,231 

19.72 

.0507 

6.3 

21 

230.5 

199.7 

II52.2 

952.6 

1,176 

18.84 

.0531 

7.3 

22 

233.0 

202.2 

1153-0 

950.8 

1,126 

18.03 

-0555 

8.3 

23 

235.4 

204.7 

II53.7 

949-1 

1,080 

17.30 

.0578 

9-3 

24 

237.8 

207.0 

II54.5 

947-4 

1,038 

16.62 

.0602 

10.3 

25 

240.0 

209.3 

II55-1 

945-8 

998 

16.00 

.0625 

11.3 

26 

242.2 

2II.5 

1155.8 

944- 3 

962 

15.42 

.0649 

12.3 

27 

244-3 

213.7 

1156.4 

942.8 

929 

14.90 

.0672 

13-3 

28 

246.3 

215-7 

II57.I 

94L3 

898 

14.40 

.0696 

14.3 

29 

248.3 

217.8 

II57.7 

939-9 

869 

13.91 

.0719 

15.3 

30 

250.2 

219.7 

1158.3 

938.9 

841 

13.50 

.0742 

16.3 

31 

252.1 

221.6 

1158.8 

937-2 

816 

13.07 

.0765 

17.3 

32 

254.0 

223.5 

II59.4 

935.9 

792 

12.68 

,0788 

18.3 

33 

255.7 

225.3 

II59.9 

934-6 

769 

12.32 

.0812 

19-3 

34 

257.5 

227.1 

1160.5 

933-4 

748 

12.00 

.0835 

20.3 

35 

259-2 

228.8 

Il6l.O 

932.2 

728 

11.66 

.0858 

21.3 

36 

260.8 

230.5 

1161.5 

931.0 

709 

11.36 

.0880 

22.3 

37 

262.5 

232.1 

1162.0 

929.8 

691 

11.07 

.0903 

23-3 

38 

264.0 

233-8 

1162.5 

928.7 

674 

10.80 

.0926 

24.3 

39 

265.6 

235.4 

1162.9 

927.6 

658 

10.53 

.0949 

25.3 

40 

267.1 

236.9 

H63.4 

926.5 

642 

10.28 

.0972 

26.3 

4i 

268.6 

238.5 

1163.9 

92£.4 

627 

10.05 

.0995 

27-3 

42 

270.1 

240.0 

1164.3 

924.4 

613 

9.83 

.1018 

28.3 

43 

271.5 

241.4 

1164.7 

923.3 

600 

9.61 

.1040 

29.3 

44 

272.9 

242.9 

1165.2 

922.3 

587 

9.41 

.1063 

30.3 

45 

274.3 

244-3 

1165.6 

921.3 

575 

9.21 

.1086 

31.3 

46 

275.7 

245.7 

I166.O 

920.4 

563 

9.02 

.1108 

32.3 

47 

277.0 

247.0 

1166.4 

919.4 

552 

8.84 

.1131 

33-3 

48 

278.3 

248.4 

1166.8 

9 i8 -5 

54i 

8.67 

-1153 

34-3 

49 

279.6 

249.7 

1167.2 

9I7.5 

53i 

8.50 

.1176 

35-3 

50 

280.9 

251.0 

1167.6 

916.6 

520 

8-34 

.1198 

36.3 

51 

282.1 

252.2 

1168.0 

915.7 

5ii 

8.19 

.1221 

37.3 

52 

283.3 

253.5 

1168.4 

914.9 

502 

8.04 

.1243 























148 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Table 4— Continued 


Gauge Pressure 

Lbs. per Sq. In. 

Absolute Pressure 
Lbs. per Sq. In. 

Temp. 

Degrees F. 

Total Heat 
above 32 0 F. 

Latent Heat 

H-h 

Heat-units 

Relative Volume 

Cubic Feet in 

I Lb. Wt. of Steam 

Wt. of 1 Cubic Foot 

of Steam, Lbs. 

In the Water 
h 

Heat-units 

In the Steam 
H 

Heat-units 

38.3 

53 

284.5 

254-7 

1168.7 

914.O 

492 

7.90 

.1266 

39*3 

54 

285.7 

256.0 

1169.1 

913 .1 

484 

7.76 

.1288 

40.3 

55 

286.9 

257.2 

1169.4 

912.3 

476 

7.63 

.1311 

41.3 

56 

288.1 

258.3 

1169.8 

9 II .5 

468 

7.50 

.1333 

42.3 

57 

289.1 

259.5 

1170.1 

910.6 

460 

7.38 

.1355 

43-3 

58 

290.3 

260.7 

1 170.5 

909.8 

453 

7.26 

.1377 

44-3 

59 

291.4 

261.8 

1170.8 

909.O 

446 

7.14 

.1400 

45-3 

60 

292.5 

262.9 

1171.2 

908.2 

439 

7.03 

.1422 

46.3 

61 

293.6 

264.0 

II 7 I -5 

907.5 

432 

6.92 

.1444 

47-3 

62 

294.7 

265.1 

1171.8 

906.7 

425 

6.82 

.1466 

48.3 

63 

295.7 

266.2 

1172.1 

905.9 

419 

6.72 

.1488 

49-3 

64 

296.8 

267.2 

1172.4 

905.2 

413 

6.62 

.1511 

50.3 

65 

297.8 

268.3 

1172.8 

904.5 

407 

6.53 

.1533 

51.3 

66 

298.8 

269.3 

H 73-1 

903.7 

401 

6.43 

.1555 

52.3 

67 

299.8 

270.4 

H 73-4 

903.O 

395 

6.34 

.1577 

53 3 

68 

300.8 

271.4 

II 73-7 

902.3 

390 

6.25 

.1599 

54.3 

69 

301.8 

272.4 

1174.0 

901.6 

384 

6.17 

.1621 

55.3 

70 

302.7 

273-4 

II 74.3 

900.9 

379 

6.09 

.1643 

56.3 

71 

303-7 

274.4 

1174-6 

900.2 

374 

6.01 

.1665 

57-3 

72 

304.6 

275.3 

1174.8 

899.5 

369 

5.93 

.1687 

58.3 

73 

305.6 

276.3 

1175.1 

898.9 

365 

5.85 

.1709 

59-3 

74 

306.5 

277.2 

H 75-4 

898.2 

360 

5.78 

.1731 

60.3 

75 

307.4 

278.2 

II 75.7 

897.5 

356 

5 . 7 i 

.1753 

61.3 

76 

308.3 

279.1 

1176.0 

896.9 

351 

5.63 

.1775 

62.3 

77 

309.2 

280.0 

1176.2 

896.2 

347 

5-57 

.1797 

63.3 

78 

310.1 

280.9 

1176.5 

895.6 

343 

5.50 

.1819 

64.3 

79 

310.9 

281.8 

1176.8 

895.0 

339 

5-43 

.1840 

65.3 

80 

3 H .8 

282.7 

1177-0 

894.3 

334 

5-37 

.1862 

66.3 

81 

312.7 

283.6 

H 77.3 

893.7 

331 

5 . 3 i 

.1884 

67.3 

82 

313.5 

284.5 

1177.6 

893.1 

327 

5.25 

.1906 

68.3 

83 

314.4 

285.3 

1177.8 

892.5 

323 

5.18 

.1928 

69.3 

84 

3 I 5.2 

286.2 

1178.1 

891.9 

320 

5.13 

.1950 

70.3 

85 

316.0 

287.0 

1178.3 

891.3 

316 

5.07 

.1971 

71.3 

86 

316.8 

287.9 

1178.6 

890.7 

313 

5.02 

.1993 

72.3 

87 

317.7 

288.7 

1178.8 

890.1 

309 

4.96 

.2015 

73-3 

88 

318.5 

289.5 

II 79 .I 

889.5 

306 

4.91 

.2036 

74.3 

89 

319.3 

290.4 

II 79.3 

888.9 

303 

4.86 

.2058 

75.3 

90 

320.0 

291.2 

1179.6 

888.4 

299 

4.81 

.2080 





















CARE AND OPERATION 


149 


Table 4 —Continued 


Gauge Pressure 
Lbs. per Sq. In. 

Absolute Pressure 
Lbs. per Sq. In. 

Temp. 

Degrees F. 

Total Heat 
above 32° F. 

Latent Heat 

H-h 

Heat-units 

Relative Volume 

Cubic Feet in 

1 Lb. Wt. of Steam 

Wt. of 1 Cubic Foot 

of Steam, Lbs. f 

In the Water 
h 

Heat-units 

In the Steam 
H 

Heat-units 

76.3 

91 

320.8 

292.0 

1179.8 

887.8 

296 

4.76 

.2102 

77-3 

92 

321.6 

292.8 

1180.0 

887.2 

293 

4.71 

.2123 

78.3 

93 

322.4 

293.6 

1180.3 

886.7 

290 

4.66 

• 2145 

79.3 

94 

323.1 

294.4 

1180.5 

886.1 

287 

4.62 

.2166 

80.3 

95 

323.9 

295.1 

1180.7 

885.6 

285 

4-57 

.2188 

81.3 

96 

324.6 

295.9 

Il8l.O 

885.0 

282 

4.53 

.2210 

82.3 

97 

325.4 

296.7 

Ii8l.2 

884.5 

279 

4.48 

.2231 

83.3 

98 

326.1 

297.4 

1181.4 

884.0 

276 

4.44 

•2253 

84.3 

99 

326.8 

298.2 

1181.6 

883.4 

274 

4.40 

.2274 

85.3 

100 

327.6 

298.9 

1181.8 

882.9 

271 

4-36 

.2296 

86.3 

101 

328.3 

299.7 

1182.1 

882.4 

268 

4.32 

.2317 

87.3 

102 

329.0 

300.4 

1182.3 

881.9 

266 

4.28 

.2339 

88.3 

103 

329.7 

301.1 

1182.5 

881.4 

264 

4.24 

.2360 

89.3 

104 

330.4 

301.9 

1182.7 

880.8 

261 

4.20 

.2382 

9°-3 

105 

33 I.I 

302.6 

1182.9 

880.3 

259 

4.16 

.2403 

9*-3 

106 

331.8 

303.3 

1183.1 

879.8 

257 

4.12 

.2425 

92.3 

107 

332.5 

304.0 

II83.4 

879.3 

254 

4.09 

.2446 

93-3 

108 

333-2 

304.7 

II83.6 

878.8 

252 

4.05 

.2467 

94-3 

109 

333-9 

305.4 

1183.8 

878.3 

250 

4.02 

.2489 

95.3 

no 

334.5 

306.1 

II84.O 

877.9 

248 

3-98 

.2510 

9 6 -3 

III 

335-2 

306.8 

1184.2 

877.4 

246 

3.95 

• 2 S 3 1 

97-3 

112 

335-9 

307.5 

1184.4 

876,9- 

244 

3.92 

.2553 

98.3 

H 3 

33^-5 

308.2 

1184.6 

876.4 

242 

3.88 

.2574 

99-3 

114 

337.2 

308.8 

1184.8 

875.9 

240 

3.85 

.2596 

100.3 

XI 5 

337.8 

309 . ^ 

1185.0 

875.5 

238 

3.82 

.2617 

101.3 

116 

338.5 

310.2 

1185.2 

875.O 

236 

3-79 

.2638 

102.3 

117 

339-1 

310.8 

1185.4 

874.5 

234 

3.76 

.2660 

103.3 

Il8 

339-7 

3 II .5 

1185.6 

874.I 

232 

3.73 

.2681 

104.3 

119 

340.4 

312.I 

1185.8 

873.6 

230 

3-70 

.2703 

105.3 

120 

341.0 

312.8 

1185.9 

873.2 

228 

3-67 

.2764 

106.3 

121 

341.6 

313.4 

Il86.1 

872.7 

227 

3-64 

.2745 

107.3 

122 

342.2 

314 .1 

1186.3 

872.3 

225 

3.62 . 

.2766 

108.3 

123 

342.9 

314.7 

1186.5 

871.8 

223 

3-59 

.2788 

109.3 

124 

343-5 

315.3 

1186.7 

871.4 

221 

3.56 

.2809 

110.3 

125 

344 - 1 

316.0 

1186.9 

870.9 

220 

3.53 

.2830 

hi .3 

126 

344-7 

316.6 

I187.I 

870.5 

218 

3 . 5 i 

2851 

112.3 

127 

345-3 

317.2 

1187.3 

870.0 

216 

3.48 

.2872 

“ 3-3 

128 

345-9 

317.8 

1187.4 

869.6 

215 

3.46 

.2894 




















150 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Table 4 —Continued 


Gauge Pressure 

Lbs. per Sq. In. 

Absolute Pressure 
Lbs. per Sq. In. 

Temp. 

Degrees F. 

Total Heat 
Above 32 0 F. 

Latent Heat 

H-h 

Heat-units 

Relative Volume 

Cubic Feet in 

I Lb. Wt. of Steam 

Wt. of 1 Cubic Foot 

of Steam, Lbs. 

In the Water 
h 

Heat-units 

In the Steam 
H 

Heat-units 

114 - 3 

129 

346.5 

318.4 

1187.6 

869.2 

213 

3-43 

.2915 

II 5-3 

130 

347-1 

3 I 9 -I 

1187.8 

868.7 

212 

341 

.2936 

116.3 

131 

347-6 

3 I 9.7 

Il88.0 

868.3 

210 

3.38 

• 2957 

II 7-3 

132 

348.2 

320.3 

1188.2 

867.9 

209 

3.36 

.2978 

118.3 

133 

348.8 

320.8 

1188.3 

867.5 

207 

3-33 

.3000 

II 9-3 

134 

349-4 

321.5 

1188.5 

867.O 

206 

3.31 

.3021 

120.3 

135 

350.0 

322.1 

1188.7 

866.6 

204 

3.29 

.3042 

121.3 

136 

350.5 

322.6 

1188.9 

866.2 

203 

3.27 

.3063 

122.3 

137 

351 .1 

323.2 

I189.O 

865.8 

201 

3.24 

.3084 

123.3 

138 

351.8 

323.8 

1189.2 

865.4 

200 

3.22 

.3105 

124.3 

139 

352.2 

324.4 

1189.4 

865.0 

199 

3.20 

.3126 

125.3 

140 

352.8 

325.0 

1189.5 

864.6 

197 

3.18 

• 3 H 7 

126.3 

141 

353-3 

325.5 

1189.7 

864.2 

I96 

3.16 

.3169 

127.3 

142 

353-9 

326.1 

1189.9 

863.8 

195 

3.14 

.3190 

128.3 

143 

354.4 

326.7 

II90.0 

863.4 

193 

3 -II 

.3211 

129.3 

144 

355-0 

327.2 

1190.2 

863.0 

192 

3.09 

.3232 

130.3 

145 

355-5 

327-8 

1190.4 

862.6 

191 

3.07 

.3253 

I 3 I .3 

146 

356.0 

328.4 

1190.5 

862.2 

I9O 

3-05 

.3274 

* 33-3 

148 

357-1 

329.5 

1190.9 

861.4 

187 

3.02 

.3316 

135-3 

150 

358.2 

330.6 

1191.2 

860.6 

185 

2.98 

.3358 

140.3 

155 

360.7 

333-2 

1192.0 

858.7 

179 

2.89 

.3463 

145.3 

160 

363.3 

335-9 

1192.7 

856.9 

174 

2.80 

.3567 

150.3 

165 

365-7 

338.4 

H 93-5 

855.1 

I69 

2.72 

.3671 

155-3 

170 

368.2 

340.9 

1194.2 

853-3 

164 

2.65 

• 3775 

160.3 

175 

370.5 

343.4 

1194.9 

851.6 

160 

2.58 

.3879 

165.3 

180 

372.8 

345-8 

1195.7 

849.9 

156 

2.51 

•3983 

170.3 

185 

375.1 

348.1 

1196.3 

848.2 

152 

2.45 

.4087 

175.3 

190 

377-3 

350.4 

1197.0 

846.6 

I48 

2-39 

.4191 

180.3 

195 

379-5 

352.7 

1197.7 

845.0 

144 

2-33 

.4296 

185.3 

200 

381.6 

354-9 

1198.3 

843-4 

141 

2.27 

.4400 

190.3 

205 

383-7 

357-1 

1199.0 

841.9 

138 

2.22 

.4503 

1953 

210 

385-7 

359-2 

1199.6 

840.4 

135 

2.17 

.4605 

200.3 

215 

387-7 

361.3 

1200.2 

838.9 

132 

2.12 

. 4/07 

205.3 

220 

389-7 

362.2 

1200.8 

838.6 

I29 

2.06 

.4852 

245.3 

260 

404.4 

377-4 

1205.3 

827.9 

no 

1.76 

. 5686 

285.3 

300 

417.4 

390.9 

1209.2 

818.3 

96 

L53 

.6515 

485.3 

500 

467.4 

443-5 

1224.5 

781.0 

59 

•94 

1.062 

685.3 

700 

504.1 

482.4 

1235.7 

753-3 

42 

.68 

1.470 

985 -3 

IOOO 

546.8 

528.3 

1248.7 

720.3 

30 

.48 

2.082 



























CARE AND OPERATION 


151 


The condition of steam as regards its dryness may be 
approximately estimated by observing its appearance as 
it issues from a pet cock or other small opening into the 
atmosphere. Dry or nearly dry steam containing about 
i per cent of moisture will be transparent close to the 
orifice through which it issues, and even if it is of a 
grayish white color it may be estimated to contain not 
over 2 per cent of moisture. 

Steam in its relation to the engine should be consid¬ 
ered in the character of a vehicle for transferring the 
energ}, created by the heat, from the boiler to the engine. 
For this reason all steam drums, headers and pipes should 
be thoroughly insulated, in order to prevent, as much as 
possible, the loss of heat or energy by radiation. 

Table 4 gives the physical properties of steam, and is 
convenient for reference. 


Questions 

1. What is one of the most important of a fireman’s 
duties ? 

2. What should the fireman attend to first of all when 
getting his engine ready to start out from the round¬ 
house ? 

3. What other details should be looked after at this 
time? 

4. What condition should his fire be in before leaving 
a terminal ? 

5. What is the proper depth of fire to be carried? 

6. Should the fireman read and understand the train 
orders ? 

7. How should the coal be supplied to the fire while 
running? 


152 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


8 . What is the best rule for the fireman to observe ? 

9. In what parts of the fire-box does the fire burn the 
heaviest generally speaking? 

10. What system of firing gives good results? 

11. What precautions should the fireman take regard¬ 
ing the lay of the road, the location of the grades, and 
the requirements of the engine as to steam? 

12. How should the water be fed to the boiler? 

13. If the boiler has a tendency to foam, what precau¬ 
tions must be observed? 

14. If there is an overflow of water in the boiler, what 
effect does the blowing of the pop valve have? 

15. What precautions should a fireman practice re¬ 
specting admission of air to the fire-box ? 

16. How may he prevent the grates from being burned 
out? 

17. Explain why the exhaust creates such a strong 
draft. 

18. When should the blower be used? 

19. Why is a larger grate area required for hard coal 
than for soft coal? 

20. What conditions control the depth of a hard coal 
fire? 

21. If a hard coal fire were allowed to become too thin, 
what would be the result? 

22. What is the secret of success in firing hard coal? 

23. How often should the grates be shaken when firing 
soft coal ? 

24. What effect does firing the coal in big lumps have ? 

25. What results follow from leaving the door open 
while firing two or three scoops of coal ? 

26. What is the proper way to fire? 


CARE AND OPERATION 


153 


27. Describe the route taken by the air in its passage 
through a locomotive when in operation. 

28. Explain the action of the exhaust steam after leav¬ 
ing the cylinders. 

29. Why does the exhaust create such a tremendous 
draft ? 

30. When there is less atmospheric pressure in the 
front end than there is outside assuming the front end 
to be air tight, what is the result ? 

31. Explain the action of the blower. 

32. What conditions are requisite in order to obtain 
good combustion ? 

33. What is a diaphragm, or deflector plate and what 
are its functions? 

34. What is the object in placing a netting in the front 
end? 

35. How is the force or intensity of the draft regulated 
with the Master Mechanic’s front end? 

36. How may an even burning fire be obtained with 
this arrangement? 

37. If the fire burns too fast near the flue sheet, what 
should be done? 

38. If the fire burns too strongly near the door what 
is to be done ? 

39. How is the supply of air to the fire to be governed ? 

40. How is the draft affected if the exhaust jet does 
not fill the stack near the base ? 

41. How is the petticoat pipe generally located? 

42. What will be the result of using a small nozzle ? 

43. What tendency does a bridge in the nozzle have ? 

44. What effect does raising or lowering the sleeve of 
the petticoat pipe have upon the draft? 


154 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


45. Describe briefly the Wallace and Kellogg adjust¬ 
able nozzle. 

46. Give the nozzle areas for different positions of the 
reverse lever. 

47. Mention the names of other draft regulating de¬ 
vices in use. 

48. Describe in brief terms the front end known as the 
Master Mechanic's. 

49. What precautions are to be observed regarding the 
opening under the diaphragm with this front end? 

50. How may the draft through the back end of the 
fire-box be increased? 

51. What is the object of the projecting wings at each 
end of the diaphragm? 

52. What results should the most efficient diaphragm 
give? 

53. What should be the angle of such a diaphragm ? 

54. What is the object of increasing the angle of the 
diaphragm ? 

55. What is the function of the perforated steel plate 
at the back side of the diaphragm ? 

56. What vacuum is obtained at various points inside 
the stack? 

57. What are the pressures in the center of the exhaust 
jet, at various heights above the nozzle? 

58. Does the point of cut-off that the engine is work¬ 
ing at affect the efficiency of the jet? 

59. Is there any advantage gained by contraction of 
the nozzle in order to increase the rate of combustion? 

60. What is the most efficient form of exhaust nozzle ? 

61. What should be the distance of the nozzle from the 
choke of a 14" x 52" stack on a 58" front end? 

62. What should be the distance of the nozzle from 
the top of the smoke arch with a 14" x 52" stack? 


CARE AND OPERATION 


155 


63. What should be the distance of the nozzle from the 
top of the arch with a 16" x 52" straight stack? 

64. What are the requirements of the stack as to taper, 
diameter, and height in order to obtain the highest effi¬ 
ciency ? 

65. How does the petticoat pipe or draft pipe add to 
the efficiency of the front end ? 

66. Should the jet come in contact with the pipe? 

67. What was the position of the draft pipe relative to 
the top of the nozzle in tests showing the highest effi¬ 
ciency ? 

68. What were the dimensions of the petticoat pipe 
used in the tests? 

69. What should be the area of netting? 

70. What is the chief objection to the perforated steel 
plate ? 

71. What point is in its favor? 

72. What can be said of the Smith Triple Expansion 
Exhaust pipe? 

73. How large should the area for the admission of air 
through the ash pan be? 

74. How many pounds of coal are burned per sq. ft. of 
grate area per hour? 

75. How much air is required per pound of coal 
burned ? 

76. What should be the ratios of ash pan openings, 
relative to areas of flues, and to cylinder volumes ? 

77. In what three ways may the draft action be 
checked ? 

78. Speaking of the netting, what is meant by zy 2 " 
mesh netting? 

79. How is the force of the draft measured ? 

80. When is a locomotive said to be a good steamer ? 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


156 

81. What is the proper method to pursue when making 
changes in the drafting arrangement? 

82. About how many square feet of grate surface are 
needed to burn one ton of soft coal per hour ? 

83. Describe a water grate. 

84. Describe the working of the Brewer Fire Door 
Opener. 

85. Describe the action of the Bates fire box door. 

86. What can be said concerning the Mechanical 

Stoker? # . 

87. Mention some of the advantages said to be gained 

by its use. 

88. What are the dimensions of the Victor Locomotive 
Stoker ? 

89. Describe briefly its action. 

90. What are the directions for firemen operating this 
stoker ? 

91. What must be done in case of accident to the stoker 
while out on the road? 

92. Describe the operation of the Hayden Mechanical 
Stoker. 

93. Describe the action of the Ryan-Johnson improve¬ 
ment attached to tenders. 

94. What are some of the advantages said to be gained 
by the use of the McCanna Force Feed Lubricator ? 

95. What four rules are to be observed in the operation 
of the Nathan New Bull’s-Eye Lubricator? 

96. What are the direction for operating the Nathan 
Triple Sight Feed Lubricator? 

97. What are the rules for operating the Detroit No. 
21 Triple Feed Lubricator? 

98. What is liable to cause a small drop of oil in a 
sight feed lubricator? 


CARE AND OPERATION 


157 


99. How can this be remedied ? 

100. What is meant by a lubricator being air-bound? 

101. How may this be overcome? 

102. What are the principles governing the action of a 
sight feed lubricator? 

103. What can be said regarding the use of oil as a 
fuel for locomotives? 

104. What will cause accumulations of soot on the flue 
sheet and flues? 

105. How is the soot removed? 

106. When is the proper time to do this? 

107. What other precautions should be taken regarding 
the fire-box of an oil burner? 

108. What is necessary in order to obtain thorough 
combustion of the oil? 

109. What must be done with the oil to cause it to 
flow freely from the tank to the burner? 

110. How may this be accomplished most successfully ? 

in. Describe a superheater in connection with the oil 

burner. 

112. What causes the drumming or rumbling noise 
sometimes produced on an oil burner? 

113. What is the result if too much water from the 
injector’s overflow is allowed to accumulate in the ash 
pit? 

114. In case the oil burner should become choked up, 
how may it be cleaned ? 

115. If the oil feed pipe becomes choked, how may it 
be cleaned? 

116. If the tank heater hose should burst, how may the 
oil in the tank be heated ? 

117. What conditions are necessary in order to pre¬ 
vent making smoke on an oil-burning locomotive? 


158 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


118. At what part of the fire-box is the oil usually 
introduced ? 

119. Are there any oil burners in which the oil is in¬ 
troduced in the front end of the fire-box ? 

120. Name some of the advantages of such a system. 

121. What is combustion? 

122. What is one of the main factors in combustion ? 

123. Of what is air composed? 

124. In what proportion are these two gases combined ? 

125. What are the principal constituents of coal and 
other fuels? 

126. What other valuable constituent is contained in 
bituminous coal? 

127. What is the usual temperature of a boiler furnace 
when in active operation ? 

128. About what should be the temperature of the 
escaping gases? 

129. What two factors are indispensable in the eo> 
nomical use of coal ? 

130. What is heat? 

131. What is the first law of Thermodynamics? 

132. What is the heat unit? 

133. What is the mechanical equivalent of heat? 

134. How many heat units are there in one pound of 
carbon ? 

135. How many heat units are there in one pound of 
hydrogen gas? 

136. What is specific heat? 

137. What is sensible heat? 

138. What is latent heat ? 

139. Is the latent heat imparted to a body lost? 

140. What is meant by the total heat of evaporation ? 

141. How fnuch heat expressed in heat units is re- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


159 


quired to evaporate one pound of water from a tempera¬ 
ture of 32 0 into steam at atmospheric pressure? 

142. Name the two elements composing pure water. 

143. In what proportion are these two gases com¬ 
bined in the formation of water? 

144. Is perfectly pure water desirable for use in steam 
boilers ? 

145. What causes scale to form in boilers? 

146. What proportion of mineral matter is usually 
found in water? 

147. At what temperature does water show its greatest 
density ? 

148. What is steam? 

149. Of what does matter consist ? 

150. How does the application of heat to any substance 
affect its molecules ? 

151. In what particular manner does heat affect the 
molecules of water? 

152. Is steam under pressure visible? 

153. What is saturated steam? 

154. What is dry steam? 

155. What is superheated steam ? 

156. What is meant by the term total heat in steam ? 

157. What is meant by the density of steam ? 

158. What is meant by the volume of steam? 

159. What is the weight of a cubic foot of water at 
39.1 0 temperature? 

160. What is the weight of a cubic foot of water at a 
temperature of 212 0 ? 

161. What is the boiling point of water in the open air 
at sea level? 

162. At what temperature will water boil in a perfect 
vacuum ? 

163. What is meant by the relative volume of steam? 


TYPES OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS, AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION. 

In order that the student may get a general idea of the 
construction of a locomotive boiler, a sectional elevation 
of one is shown in Fig. 55. 

The four vital organs of a locomotive boiler are: 
first, the fire-box A; second, the cylinder or barrel B-B; 
third, the flues or tubes C-C, and fourth, the smokestack 
D. Underneath the fire-box is suspended the ash pan E, 
next above the ash pan appears the mud ring F-F. This 
is a wrought iron bar bent to the proper form to extend 
around the bottom of the inside of the fire-box, the ends 
welded, and the ring thus formed is then drilled and 
riveted to the inside and outside sheets. 

The fire-box is a rectangular box constructed of steel 
plates G-G from to 9-16. in. in thickness. The inner 
shell is surrounded by an outside shell H-H, also con¬ 
structed of steel plates, usually of about the same thick¬ 
ness as the inner plates. The outside shell is enough 
larger than the inside one to allow a space of 2*4 to 4 y 2 
in. between the inner and outer plates. This space is 
called the water space and entirely surrounds the fire-box 
on the four sides, the water occupying it being in free 
communication with the main body of water in the boiler. 
It will thus be seen that the flat sides of the fire-box are 
subjected to the full pressure of the steam, and unless 
they be strengthened in some manner they will bulge 
apart. This danger is obviated by the use of staybolts 
J-J, Fig. 55. These are made of the best quality of 
wrought iron, generally from % to 1 1-16 in. in diameter, 
and have a screw thread cut their whole length. They 
160 



\ 



3 




< r~i -r 



— ... ! . 1 ' - , - - - 





: ■ ■ - .... "" 










Fig. 55. Vertical Longitudinal Section of Locomotive Boiler. 













































































































































































































































































CARE AND OPERATION 


161 


are screwed through both the outside and inside plates 
at intervals of from 4 to in. apart center to center, 
thus securely binding the plates together. The projecting 
ends of these stay bolts are also riveted down onto the 
plates, thus further increasing their holding power. 

Owing to the unequal expansion and contraction of the 
inner and outer plates, stay bolts are subjected to great 
strains and very frequently break, thereby causing a large 
amount of trouble. They should be made tubular, or at 
least have a small hole drilled into one end, as shown in 



Pig. 56. 


Fig. 56, extending into the bolt a distance greater than 
the thickness of the outside plate, so that if the bolt 
breaks, which generally occurs next the outside plate, the 
water will escape through the fracture into the hole and 
thus indicate the defect and the danger. 

The Tate flexible stay bolt, which received the highest 
award at the St. Louis exposition in 1904, appears to 
offer at least a partial solution of the problem of staying 
fire-box sheets. Fig. 57 is a sectional view showing the 
design of this stay bolt. The ball-shaped head of the bolt 
C is inclosed within a socket formed by a sleeve B that 




















162 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


screws into the outer sheet, and a cap A that screws onto 
the sleeve. The other end of the bolt is screwed into 
and through the fire sheet a sufficient distance to allow of 
riveting. It is apparent that the freedom of movement 




Fig. 57. 


of the head of the bolt within its socket will allow the fire 
sheet to go and come, without subjecting the bolt to such 
severe strains and transverse stresses as would occur if 



the bolt were rigid. Fig. 58 is a full view of the bolt, 
except that the thread has not yet been cut on the end that 
screws into the fire sheet. The Tate flexible stay bolt is' 
manufactured by the Flannery Bolt Company, Pitts¬ 
burg, Pa. 











































CARE AND OPERATION 


163 


Shaffer's improved stay bolt. 

Figs. 59 to 62, inclusive, illustrate an improved stay 
bolt for locomotive boilers invented and patented by Mr. 
D. L. Shaffer, of Pittsburg, Pa., which he claims will 
overcome the dangers incident to contraction and expan¬ 
sion of the sheets. 



Fig. 59. 


Mr. Shaffer describes his invention as follows: 

“One of the difficulties in the use of steam boilers is 
the constant contraction and expansion to which the same 



Fig. 60. 


are subjected in use, and as a consequence the stay bolts 
are subjected to a constant warping or bending strain in 
opposite directions. This results in breaking the bolts 
close to one of the sheets to which the bolts are attached. 

“The object of my invention is to provide a stay bolt 











164 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


for steam boilers wherein the above objection is over¬ 
come. To this end the bolt is made flexible—that is, of 
two sections suitably joined together, so that they can 
move relatively to each other, each section being pro¬ 
vided at its ends with means of securing it to the 
sheet. . . . 

“In the accompanying drawings, Fig. 59 is a side view 
of one form of my improved stay bolt. Fig. 60 is a 
modification thereof to provide increased heating capacity 
to the boiler, and Fig. 61 is still another modification 
showing a different form of joint. Fig. 62 is another 
modification in which the large end is threaded the entire 
length. 



Fig. 62. 


Fig. 61. 


“In the drawings the sheets which are connected by 
the stay bolts are shown at 1 and 2. The stay bolt is 
made of two sections 3 and 4, which are'suitably jointed 
to each other, so that they can move at least a limited 
amount in all directions. Various forms of joints may 
be employed, that shown in the drawings being a simple 
and efficient one and comprises an eye 5, formed on the 
ends of each joint, which eyes interlock, as shown, so as 
to form, in effect, a knuckle-joint. This joint, however, 
prevents independent rotary movement of the two sec¬ 
tions, so that the bolt can be screwed into place by turn- 











CARE AND OPERATION 


165 


ing on one end thereof. This knuckle-joint is necessarily 
of considerable size, and as a consequence the hole in one 
of the sheets must be made sufficiently large to permit the 
entrance of the bolt. This is clearly shown in the draw¬ 
ings, where in the hole 6 in the sheet I is made quite large 
and the section 3 of the bolt is made of a size sufficient to 
fill this hole. When it is desired to increase the heating 
capacity of the furnace, the large section 3 of this bolt can 
be made very long, as shown in Fig. 60 and hollow as 
shown at 7, thus forming in effect a tubular stay bolt, open 
at its inner end to the furnace, so that the flame and heat 
can enter said tube, and thus increase the heating surface 
of the fire-box. 

“Each section is provided with suitable means at its ends 
for securing the bolt to the sheets. 

“As shown in Figs. 59 and 60, both sections are pro¬ 
vided with threaded ends 8, for screwing into the holes 
in the sheets. The outer end of the large tubular section 
3a (shown in Fig. 60) is slightly enlarged where the 
screw threads are formed, as shown at 9, to obviate the 
necessity of threading the said section through its entire 
length. 

“Various other forms of attaching means to the flue 
sheets may be employed, as for instance in Fig. 61, the 
hole 6 in the sheet 1 is slightly reamed out on its outer 
surface and a small conical metallic thimble 10 is placed 
in said depression, surrounding the bolt section 3a, after 
which the end of the latter is expanded outwardly over 
said thimble, this thimble acting as a non-compressible 
packing ring for the joint. Fig. 62 is a modification in 
which the large section is threaded for its entire length. 
The knuckle-joint (shown at 5) permits the two bolt sec¬ 
tions to move relatively to each other in all directions, 


166 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


so that unequal expansion and contraction of the boiler 
will not produce any bending strains in the metal of the 
bolt. 

“As a consequence they will last much longer than an 
ordinary non-flex ible bolt.” 

The following solemn reflections upon the stay bolt sit¬ 
uation are reproduced from the Railway Master Me¬ 
chanic : 

“One of the peculiar things in locomotive operation that 
seems to thwart the best efforts of locomotive designers 
is the uncertain status of the stay bolt situation; erratic 
for the reason that like causes do not product like effects. 
The reasons for failure under similar conditions do not 
hold uniformly, and these facts are responsible for the 
inability to stem the wholesale breakages going on in 
locomotive fireboxes. Remedies are as plentiful as the 
leaves of Vallambrosa, and while some of these work out 
in specific cases, they fail miserably in general applica¬ 
tion. 

“It would seem to be a simple mechanical achievement 
to provide a stay bolt that would be safe under any boiler 
pressure and condition of service, but the contrary is well 
known to be the actual case. After running the gamut 
of dimensions, co-efficients of expansion, moments of re¬ 
sistance and all other elements affecting the tendency of 
stay bolts to rupture—they break. Is it due to rigidity, 
to quality, of material, to want of perforation for air ad¬ 
mission, or all three of these points that are urged as in¬ 
imical to the life of a stay bolt? These questions are 
pertinent when stay bolt failures are a matter of constant 
record on some roads, and of infrequent occurrence on 
others. 


CARE AND OPERATION • 


167 


“This line of thought is suggested by the wholesale 
failure of stay bolts on a French engine which was built 
for a prominent road in this country. The breakages be¬ 
gan to be noted when the engine had made a mileage 
much less than when this trouble would be expected to de¬ 
velop on an American engine having a similar design of 
bolt—which was rigid, by the way, and of copper, in a 
copper fire-box sheet. The destruction went on until fully 
one-half of the original installation was replaced. It is 
possible that the narrow water spaces of foreign practice 
had some influence in producing this result, yet the fact 
remains that this firebox and its staying was constructed 
on lines in strict accord with the practice of the French 
builders of the engine—which has proved a remarkable 
machine in other respects, there as well as here, and the 
short and unsatisfactory life of the bolts in this country 
causes one to marvel, when it is known that this identical 
practice obtains abroad, and without tidings of similar 
failures reaching this country. The application of flex¬ 
ible stay bolts to the above engine might work a reforma¬ 
tion in failures.” 


STRESSES IN STAY BOLTS. 

Ordinary practice spaces stay bolts four inches from 
center to center, thus giving an area of 4x4, equals 16 
square inches of surface to be supported by each bolt. This 
does not take into account the area of the bolt itself. 

Assuming a'boiler pressure of 260 pounds per square 
inch, the load to be carried by each bolt will be 16x200, 
equals 3,200 pounds. 

The bolts being one inch in diameter and threaded 12 
per inch, have a diameter at the bottom of the thread of 


168 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


.892 inch. This leaves a net area of .625 inch, and with 
wrought iron having a T. S. of 50,000 pounds per square 
inch as the material for stay bolts, the net strength of 
each bolt will be 5o,ooox.625, equals 31,250 pounds, which 
leaves a factor of safety of 31,250, divided by 3,200, equals 
9.76. 

The above calculation appears to be, and is, simple 
enough, for the reason that all of the elements considered 
are positive, and the only force provided for is the straight 
pull on the bolt. The situation, however, becomes ex¬ 
tremely complex when expansive forces tend to rupture 
the bolt by alternating transverse stresses due to the bend¬ 
ing moment which is the effect of the tendency of the in¬ 
side sheet to move by expansion. In order to treat the 
case by the principle of moments it will be necessary, in 
the absence of reliable data, to assume some value for the 
force exerted on the inside sheet, and for our purpose 
200 pounds will be taken, which may be too much or too 
little. A water space of four inches in width is common 
practice at this time, and the force of 200 pounds acting 
through a lever arm of four inches produces a. bending 
moment of: 

M=200X4=800 inch-pounds. 

The resisting moment R for a solid cylinder=o.c>982d s , 
and since the diameter of a one-inch bolt at bottom of 
thread is 0.892 inch, R=o.o69. By the equation 
M 

—, the stress at the outermost fibres of the bolt is: 

c M 800 

^=^ == '^g^ :=: ii59 0 pounds per square inch, due to 

the vibratory action of the firebox. It is seen that this 
stress alone is quite sufficient to produce rupture when 



CARE AND OPERATION 


169 


repeated indefinitely, but the bolt is also resisting a pull 
of 5,120 pounds per square inch, and since these stresses 
both tend to break the bolt, the total effect in the direction 
of rupture is 5,120+11,590=16,710 pounds per square 
inch, which is entirely too high when constantly reversed. 
There is only one unknown quantity in the factors used, 
namely, the assumed load of 200 pounds acting on the 
fire-box side. The theoretical deflection for that load= 
WI 3 

- T is too little for consideration, and for that reason 
sEI 

the forces operating to bend the bolt are believed to be 
much higher than the value taken in the calculations. 

It is plain that a rigid stay bolt can not stand such treat¬ 
ment even when made of the best material, and if the 
foregoing assumptions are correct, the reason why flex¬ 
ibility is the first essential in a stay bolt is equally plain. 
Mohler and Spangenberg have given us the results of ex¬ 
periments made to show the effect, or rapid weakening 
of metal under repeated reversal of loads, and their find¬ 
ings would appear to be very applicable to the life of 
stay bolts. 

THE CROWN SHEET AND RADIAL STAYS. 

It is also necessary to strengthen the flat top or crown 
sheet of the fire-box. There are three common methods 
by which this is done: first, by crown bars; second, by 
radial stays, and third, by the Belpaire system. 

In Fig. 55 the crown bar method is shown, K-K being 
the ends of the crown bars. Fig. 63 is a transverse sec¬ 
tional view of the same boiler, and one of the crown 
bars, K-K, is shown extending across the top of the fire¬ 
box above the crown sheet and supported at the ends 


170 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



by special castings that rest on the edges of the side 
sheets and on the flange of the crown sheet at L-L. These 
crown bars are double girders, and a space is allowed be- 










































CARE AND OPERATION 


171 


tween them and the top of the crown sheet to allow the 
water to circulate freely. At intervals of 4 or 5 inches 
crown bolts are placed having the head inside the fire¬ 
box and the nut bearing on a plate on top of the crown 
bar. There is also a thimble or ring for each bolt to pass 
through, between the top of the crown sheet and the bot¬ 
tom of the crown bars. These thimbles maintain the 
proper distance between the crown sheet and the crown 
bars. 



The second method of supporting the crown sheet is by 
the use of radial stays, which are long stay bolts screwed 
into the outer shell and into the crown sheet. Fig. 64 































172 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


shows a longitudinal section of a fire-box having the 
crown sheet secured by radial stays, and Fig. 65 is a 
transverse section and back view of the same. The prin¬ 
cipal defect in this construction is, that in order to resist 
successfully the strains induced by the pressure on the 
crown sheet, the stays should be placed at right angles to 



its surface, and in order to resist the pressure on the 
outer shell they should be radial to its cylindrical form, 
but as it is impossible to so locate them the strains are not 
equally divided and a certain distortion of both the stays 
and the sheets is the result. The only thing that can be 









CARE AND OPERATION 


173 


done under such conditions is to approximate as closely 
as possible the correct position of the stays. 

In the third or Belpaire system the outside shell of 
the boiler directly over the crown sheet is made flat to 
conform to the surface of the crown sheet. This permits 
of positive staying, the stays all having good bearings in 
and on the sheets. This method is illustrated by Figs. 



Fig. 66. 


66 and 67, which shows longitudinal and transverse sec¬ 
tions of this form of fire-box. The long stays S S S 
are seen to be connected at right angles to the flat plates, 
and the sides, which are also flat, are braced by the rods 
B B B extending across from side to side. A great ad- 






















































































174 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


vantage in this form of fire-box is that the crown sheet 
and the flat outside sheet directly over it have more or 
less flexibility and are free to bend or spring, according 
as the inside plates become heated and expand, or cool 
and contract. On the other hand, if the outside sheet 
is cylindrical in shape and has the crown sheet stayed 



to it by means of radial stays, it will be subjected to ex¬ 
cessive distortional strains caused by the more or less 
pushing upwards of the stays as the inner plates become 
heated. 

The crown sheets of locomotive boilers are as a rule 
made to slope downwards from the front end of the fire- 

































CARE AND OPERATION 


175 


box toward the back end, so as to be several inches lower 
behind than in front. This is done in order to lessen 
the danger of the back end of the crown sheet becoming 
uncovered of water in running down a steep grade. 
There is not so much danger of the front end of the 
crown sheet becoming uncovered, either in going up or 
down a grade, for the reason that it is nearer the center 
of the length of the boiler. 


<5 



Fig. 68. 


The usual method of staying the heads of locomotive 
boilers is illustrated in Fig. 55. Diagonal stays or braces 
S S S S are used, having one end riveted to the shell and 
the other end connected to that portion of the head that 
needs bracing. 

The flues serve to brace the flue sheet and all of that 
portion of the front head to which they are connected. 
Sometimes gusset stays are used for staying the heads. 
A gusset stay is a triangular piece of boiler plate P, 
Fig. 68, connected to the boiler head H and to the shell 
S by means of angle irons A A A A, which are riveted 
to the head. The plate P is connected to the angle irons 
by rivets. The tube plates or flue sheets are of necessity 
thicker than the shell, owing to the fact that they are 








176 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


considerably weakened by the holes drilled in them for 
the tubes. By reference to Fig. 55 the arrangement of 
tubes will be clearly understood, N being the fire-box 
end and M the smoke-box end. Fig. 63 gives a view of 
the fire-box end of the tubes, which in this case are ar¬ 
ranged in vertical rows. In some cases the tubes are 
placed in horizontal rows. Opinions differ as to the best 
arrangement, but it is generally conceded that the plan 
of having them in vertical rows permits of a freer cir¬ 
culation of the water around them. 



The diameter of locomotive tubes is usually two inches, 
as that size has been found by experience to be the most 
suitable for the distribution of the hot gases on their way 
from the fire-box to the smoke-stack. 

The tubes or flues are made water-tight in the sheets 
by being expanded in the holes drilled to receive them. 
The ends of the tubes are allowed to project through 
the sheets Y^ inch or more. Copper ferrules are generally 
slipped in over the outside of the tubes, and the tube is 
then expanded to fill the hole and a water-tight joint is 






CARE AND OPERATION 


177 


thus secured. After the tube has been sufficiently ex¬ 
panded, the projecting end is turned back onto the sheet 
and formed into a bead by the use of a caulking tool 
made especially for the purpose. Fig. 69 is a sectional 
view of one end of a tube as it appears after being ex¬ 
panded into the sheet. 


Z D 

Fig. 70. 

There have been various types of tools designed and 
made for expanding tubes, but the two most generally 
used are the Prosser, Figs. 70 and 71, and the Dudgeon, 
Fig. 72. 




The Prosser tube expanded is an expanding plug made 
up of eight or more sectors, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, held 
together by an open steel ring or spring clasp C (see Fig. 



















178 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


71). The sector-shaped pieces have their inner edges 
cut away in such a shape as to leave a tapered hole H 
through the center of the plug. Into this hole the tapered 
mandrel E is inserted, and when the expander is inserted 
into the mouth of the tube and the mandrel driven in, 
the sectors will be slightly separated and the tendency will 
be to expand the tubes. The outside conformation of the 
sectors composing the plug is such that, when the tube 
is expanded, it not only completely fills the hole in the 
tube sheet but is also expanded past the edge of the hole, 
both on the inside and outside of the sheet, thus securely 



binding the tube in the sheet and causing it to act as a 
brace. Referring to Fig. 69, S S is the tube sheet, R R 
shows the expanded ridge on the tube inside the sheet, 
and T T indicates the manner in which the end of the 
tube is expanded and beaded over onto the outer edge of 
the hole. 

The Dudgeon roller tube expander, shown in Fig. 72, 
consists of a hollow plug having a sleeve or cap at one 
end that bears against the outside of the sheet, thus serv¬ 
ing as a guide to the roller when in use. Three cavities 
are cut longitudinally in the plug, and into each one of 
these cavities a roller is inserted which is free to revolve. 
These rollers can also move a short distance outward 















CARE AND OPERATION 


179 


from the center of the plug. In using this expander 
the plug is inserted into the mouth of the tube as far as 
the cap will permit. A tapered mandrel is then driven 
into the central opening, and the rollers are forced out 
against the inner surface of the tube. The mandrel is 
then slowly turned around by means of a short steel rod 
inserted into one of the holes shown in the head (see Fig. 
72). This causes the plug to revolve, as well as the 
rollers which bear hard against the tube, and expand it so 
as to fill the hole in the sheet. 

The Dudgeon expander is also a very efficient tool for 
repairing leaky tubes. Cast iron or steel ferrules made 
slightly tapering are sometimes driven into the mouths of 
tubes after they have been expanded, but this method, 
although it may serve to prevent leakage, will at the 
same time decrease the capacity of the tubes to conduct 
the heat. 

As the term tensile strength (T. S.) will be used quite 
frequently in the remaining portion of this chapter, it 
is proper that its meaning be explained for the benefit 
of the beginner. 

The expression tensile strength per square inch as re¬ 
ferring to a boiler sheet means that when the plate is 
rolled, and before it is accepted by the inspector, a small 
test piece having a sectional area of one square inch is 
cut from the plate and placed in a testing machine, where 
it is subjected to a pull or strain in the direction of its 
length, and this strain must equal the T. S. called for 
in the specifications. If the specifications call for a T. 
S. of 66,000 pounds per square inch, the test piece must 
withstand that much of a strain before showing signs of 
breaking, otherwise the sheet will or should be rejected. 

When steel was first introduced as a material for 


180 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


boiler plate, it was customary to demand a high tensile 
strength, 70,000 to 74,000 pounds per square inch, but 
experience and practice demonstrated in course of time 
that it was much safer to use a material of lower tensile 
strength. It was found that with steel boiler plate of 
high tenacity there was great liability of its cracking, 
and also of certain changes occurring in its physical prop¬ 
erties, brought about by the variations in temperature to 
which it was exposed. Consequently present-day speci¬ 
fications for steel boiler plate call for tensile strengths 
running from 55,000 to 66,000 pounds, usually 60,000 



\ .- 

Abf/ess fA*n 9” ] 

! -, 


j 

!?]•'*] 

EH 


l- Moon*:. -i 


Pig. 73. Test Piece. 


pounds per square inch. Dr. Thurston gives what he 
calls “good specifications” for boiler steel as follows: 
Sheets to be of uniform thickness, smooth finish, and 
sheared closely to size ordered. Tensile strength to be 
60,000 pounds per square inch for fire-box sheets and 
55,000 pounds per square inch for shell sheets. Work¬ 
ing test: a piece from each sheet to be heated to a dark 
cherry red, plunged into water at 6o° and bent double, 
cold, under the hammer. Such piece to show no flaw 
after bending.” The U. S. Board of Supervising In¬ 
spectors of Steam Vessels prescribes, in Section 3 of 
General Rules and Regulations, the following method 
for ascertaining the tensile strength of steel plate for 









CARE AND OPERATION 


181 


boilers: “There shall be taken from each sheet to be 
used in shell or other parts of boiler which are subject 
to tensile strain, a test piece prepared in form according 
to the following diagram: 

The straight part in center shall be 9 inches in length 
and 1 inch in width, marked with light prick punch 
marks at distances 1 inch apart, as shown, spaced so as 
to give 8 inches in length. The sample must show, when 
tested, an elongation of at least 25 per cent, in a length 
of 2 inches for thickness up to Y inch inclusive; in a 
length of 4 inches, for over inch to 7-16 inch inclusive; 
in a length of 6 inches, for all plates over 7-16 inch and 
under inches in thickness. The samples shall also be 
capable of being bent to a curve of which the inner radius 
is not greater than i l / 2 times the thickness of the plates, 
after having been heated uniformly to a low cherry red 
and quenched in water of 82° F.” 


PUNCHED AND DRILLED PLATES. 

Much has been written on this subject, and it is still 
open for discussion. If the material is a good, soft steel, 
punched sheets are apparently as strong and in some in¬ 
stances stronger than drilled ; especially is - this the case 
with regard to the shearing resistance of the rivets, which 
is greater with punched than with drilled holes. 

Concerning rivets and rivet iron and steel Dr. Thurs¬ 
ton has this to say in his “Manual of Steam Boilers”: 
“Rivet iron should have a tenacity in the bar approach¬ 
ing 60,000 pounds per square inch, and should be as 
ductile as the very best boiler plate when cold. A good 
^j-inch iron rivet can be doubled up and hammered to- 


182 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


gether cold without exhibiting a trace of fracture.” The 
shearing resistance of iron rivets is about 85 per cent, 
and that of steel rivets about 77 per cent of the tenacity 
of the original bar, as shown by experiments made by 
Greig and Eyth. The researches made by Wohler dem¬ 
onstrated that the shearing strength of iron was about 
four-fifths of the tensile strength. 

The tables that follow have been compiled from the 
highest authorities and show the results of a long and 
exhaustive series of tests and experiments made in order 
to ascertain the proportions of riveted joints that will 
give the highest efficiencies. 

The following table gives the diameters of rivets for 
various thicknesses of plates and is calculated accord¬ 
ing to a rule given by Unwin. 

Table 5 


Table op Diameters of Rivets* 


Thickness of 
Plate 

Diameter of Rivet 

Thickness of Plate 

Diameter of Rivet 

V 4 inch 

l /a inch 

9 /ie inch 

7 /t inch 

15 /ie 44 
lVii 44 

% 44 

•/» 44 

5 /a 44 

% " 

u L 44 

3 / 4 “ 

7 V “ 

% “ 

V# 44 

IV. 44 

V. “ 

l 7u 44 

1 14 

1 V 4 44 


The efficiency of the joint is the percentage of the 
strength of the solid plate that is retained in the joint, 
and it depends upon the kind of joint and method of 
construction. 

If the thickness of the plate is more than y 2 inch, the 
joint should always be of the double butt type. 


♦Machine design —W. C. Unwin. 










CARE AND OPERATION 


183 


The diameters of rivets, rivet holes, pitch and efficiency 
of joint, as given in the following table, which was pub¬ 
lished in the “Locomotive” several years ago, were 
adopted at the time by some of the best establishments in 
the United States.* 


Table 6 


Proportions and Efficiencies of Riveted Joint* 



Inch 

Inch 

Inch 

Inch 

Inch 

Thickness of plate. 

v 4 

5 /l« 

Vs 

7 /i0 

Va 

Diameter of rivet. 

Vs 

u /i6 

3 / 4 

,3 /i0 

Vs 

Diameter of rivet-hole. 

u /ie 

3 U 

13 /l0 

Vs 

15 /i0 

Pitch for single riveting. 

2 

2Vl6 

27 8 

2 3 /l6 

2V 4 

Pitch for double riveting. 

3 

3Vs 

3 V 4 

3 3 /g 

37a 

Efficiency—single-riveted joint 

.66 

.64 

.62 

.60 

.58 

Efficiency—double-riveted joint 

.77 

.76 

.75 

.74 

.73 


Concerning the proportions of double-riveted butt 
joints, Professor Kent says: “Practically it may be said 
that we get a double-riveted butt joint of maximum 
strength by making the diameter of the rivet about 1.8 
times the thickness of the plate, and making the pitch 
4.1 times the diameter of the hole.” 

Table 7, as given below, is condensed from the report 
of a test of double-riveted lap and butt joints.f In this 
test the tensile strength of the plates was 56,000 to 
58,000 pounds per square inch, and the shearing resist¬ 
ance of the rivets (steel) was about 50,000 pounds per 
square inch. 


♦Thurston’s Manual of Steam Bolters. 
tPnxs, Inst, M. E., Oct., 1888. 
















184 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Table 7 

Diameter and Pitch of Rivets— Double-riveted Joint 


Kind of Joint 

Thickness of 
Plate 

Diameter of 
Rivet 

Ratio of Pitch to 
Diameter 

Lap 

| inch 

0.8 inches 

3.6 inches 

Butt 

1 “ 

0.7 “ 

3.9 “ 

Butt 

i 44 

1.1 " 

4.0 “ 

Butt 

i “ 

1.3 “ 

3.9 “ 


Lloyd’s rules, condensed, are as follows: 

Lloyd’s Rules—Thickness of Plate and Diameter of Rivets 


Thickness of 
Plate 

Diameter of 
Rivets 

Thickness of 
Plate 

Diameter of 
Rivets 

3 /s inch 

5 / 8 inch 

3 /4 “ 

7 /s 

inch 

7 /ie “ 

Vs 4 ‘ 

13 /ie “ 

Vs 

44 

V* “ 

3/ 4 

Vs “ 

1 

4 $ 

“ 

3 /4 44 

15 /i« 44 

1 

44 

Vs 44 

3 / 4 44 

1 “ 

1 

44 

u /i« “ 

’/. “ 





The following table 8 is condensed from one calcu¬ 
lated by Professor Kent,* in which he assumes the shear¬ 
ing strength of the rivets to be four-fifths of the tensile 
strength of the plate per square inch, and the excess 
strength of the perforated plate to be 10 per cent. 

•Kent's Mechanical Engineers Pocket-Book, page 362. 



























CARE AND OPERATION 


185 


Table 8 


Thickness 
of Plate 

Diameter 
of Hole 

Pitch 

Efficiency —- 

Single 

Riveting 

Double 

Riveting 

Single 

Riveting 

Double 

Riveting 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Per Cent 

Per Cent 

3/ g 

Vs 

2.04 

3.20 

57.1 

72.7 

Vie 

1 

2.30 

3.61 

56.6 

72.3 

V 2 

1 

2.14 

3.28 

53.3 

70.0 

V* 

iy 8 

2.57 

4.01 

56.2 

72.0 

®/l6 

1 

2.01 

3.03 

50.4 

67.0 

®/ie 

iy 8 

2.41 

3.69 

53.3 

69.5 

•/ M 

iy 4 

2.83 

4.42 

55.9 

71.5 

5 /a 

1 

1.91 

2.82 

47.7 

64.6 

% 

iy 8 

2.28 

3.43 

50.7 

67.3 

u 

1V4 

2.67 

4.10 

53.3 

69.5 


Another table of joint efficiencies as given by Dr. 
Thurston* is as follows, slightly condensed from the 
original calculation: 


Table 9 


Single riveting 

Plate thickness. 5 /ie" 3 /g" 7 /i«" V2" 
Efficiency.55 .55 .53 .52 


s / 8 " 

.48 


V4” 

.47 




.45 


t # 


1 " 

.43 


Double riveting 
Plate thickness. 3 / 8 '' 
Efficiency.73 


7 /ie' 

.72 


V 2 * 

.71 


74 

.66 


7 /8 M 

.64 


1 " 

.63 


The author has been at considerable pains to com¬ 
pile Tables 10, 11 and 12, giving proportions and effi¬ 
ciencies of single lap, double lap and butt, and triple- 
riveted butt joints. The highest authorities have been 
consulted in the computation of these tables and great 
care exercised in the calculations. 


'Thurston’s Manual of Steam Boilers, page 119. 





















186 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Table io 

Proportions of Single-riveted Lap Joints 


Thickness of Plate 
Inches 

Diameter of Rivet 
Inches 

Pitch of Rivet 
Inches 

Efflciencv 

Per Cent 

5 /ie 

%<, 

1.13 

50.5 

U 

5 /s 

1.33 

53.3 

44 

ll /ie 

3 U 

1.55 

55.7 

% 

1.60 

53.3 

V 8 

2.04 

57.1 

Vu 

7* 

1.87 

53.2 

44 

l 

2.30 

56 6 

% 

l 

2.14 

53.3 

iy« 

2.57 

56.2 

•A, 

i 

2.01 

50.4 

44 

I 1 /* 

2.41 

53.3 

44 

iy 4 

2.83 

55.9 

6 U 

lVs 

2.28 

50.7 

174 

2.67 

53.3 


It will be noticed that in single-riveted lap joints the 
highest efficiencies are attained when the diameter of 
the rivet hole is about 2 l /$ times the thickness of the plate, 
and the pitch of the rivet times the diameter of the 
hole. 

With the double-riveted joint it appears, according to 
Table 11, that in order to obtain the highest efficiency 
the joint should be designed so that the diameter of 
the rivet hole will be from 1 4-5 to 2 times the thickness 
of plate, and the pitch should be from 3^ to y / 2 times 
the diameter of the hole. Concerning the thickness of 
plates Dr. Thurston has this to say:* “Very thin plates 
cannot be well caulked, and thick plates cannot be safely 
riveted. The limits are about Y\ of an inch for the 
lower limit, and of an inch for the higher limit.” The 


•Thurston’s Manual of Steam Boilers, page 120. 













CARE AND OPERATION 


187 


riveting machine, however, overcomes the difficulty with 
very thick plates. 

The triple-riveted butt joint with two welts, one inside 
and one outside, has two rows of rivets in double shear 
and one outer row in single shear on each side of the butt, 
the pitch of rivets in the outer rows being twice the 
pitch of the inner rows. One of the welts is wide enough 
for the three rows of rivets each side of the butt, while 
the other welt takes in only the two close pitch rows. 

Table ii 

Proportions op Double-riveted Lap and Butt Joints 


Thickness of 
Plate 

Diameter of 
Rivet 

Pitch of Rivet 

Efficiency 

Via 

inch 

Via 

inch 

1.71 

inches 

67.1 per cent 

Via 

II 

5 /s 

II 

2.05 

II 

69.5 

ii 

*/» 

II 

*u 

II 

2.46 

II 

69.5 

II 

»s 

II 

Vs 

II 

3.20 

II 

72.7 

II 

Via 

II 

V 4 

II 

2.21 

II 

66.2 

ii 

V. 

II 

V. 

ii 

2.86 

II 

69.4 

ii 

Via 

ii 

1 

ii 

3.61 

II 

72.3 

ii 

»/. 

II 

1 

ii 

3.28 

II 

70.0 

II 

Hi 

II 

lVs 

ii 

4.01 

II 

72.0 

II 

•/w 

II 

1 

II 

3.03 

II 

67.0 

II 

*/ie 

II 

IV* 

a 

3.69 

II 

69.5 

II 

# /ie 

<1 

1V4 

a 

4.42 

II 

71.5 

ii 

v! 

ii 

IV* 

11 

3.43 

II 

67.3 

ii 


II 

1V4 

11 

4.10 

II 

69.5 

a 

*/ 4 

II 

1 

a 

2.50 

II 

72.0 

a 

Vs 

II 

lVs 

a 

3.94 

II 

74.2 

a 

1 

II 

1V4 

11 

4.10 

« 

76.1 

a 


When properly designed, this form of joint has a high 
efficiency, and is to be relied upon. Table 12 gives 
proportions and efficiencies, and it will be noted that the 
highest degree of efficiency is shown when the diameter 
of rivet hole is from 1% to I y 2 times the thickness of 











188 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


plate, and the pitch of the rivets is from 3^4 to 4 times 
the diameter of the hole. This, of course, refers to the 
pitch of the close rows of rivets, and not the two outer 
rows. 


Table 12 

Proportions of Triple-riveted Butt Joints with Inside ai»d 
Outside Welt 


Thickness of 
Plate 
Inches 

Diameter of 
Rivet 
Inches 

Pitch of 
Rivet 
Inches 

Pitch of 
Outer Rows 
Inches 

Efficiency 
Per Cent 

3 /s 

13 /i« 

3.25 

6.5 

84 

7 /i« 

13 /u 

3.25 

6.5 

85 

Va 

13 /i« 

3.25 

6.5 

83 

%• 

Vs 

3.50 

7.0 

84 

Vs 

1 

3.50 

7.0 

86 

Vi 

1V16 

3.50 

7.0 

85 

Vs 

lVa 

3.75 

7.5 

86 

1 

1V4 

3.87 

7.7 

84 


A few examples of calculations for efficiency will be 
given, taking the three forms of riveted joints in most 
common use. The following notation will be used 
throughout: 

T.S.=Tensile strength of plate per square inch. 

T ^Thickness of plate. 

C = Crushing resistance of plate and rivets. 

A ^Sectional area of rivets. 

S = Shearing strength of rivets. 

D =Diameter of hole (also diameter of rivets when 
driven). 

P = Pitch of rivets. 

In the calculations that follow T.S. will be assumed 
to be 60,000 pounds, S will be taken at 45,000 pounds, 










CARE AND OPERATION 


189 


and the value of C may be assumed to be 90,000 to 
95,000. 

Fig. 74 shows a double-riveted lap joint. The style 
of riveting in this joint is what is known as chain rivet¬ 
ing. 

In case the rivets are staggered the same rules for 
calculating the efficiency will hold as with chain rivet¬ 
ing, for the reason that with either style of riveting the 
unit strip of plate has a width equal to the pitch or dis¬ 
tance p, Fig. 74. 



The dimensions of the joint under consideration are as 
follows: in-, T=7 -i 6 in.; D=i in. (which is 

also diameter of driven rivet). 

The strength of the unit strip of solid plate is PXTX 
T. S.=:85,3I2. 

The strength of net section of plate after drilling is 
P_DXTXT.S.=59,o62. 

The shearing resistance of two rivets is 2AXS=70,- 

686 . 

The crushing resistance of rivets and plate is DX2XT 

XC=78,750. 








190 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


It thus appears that the weakest part of the joint is the 
net strip or section of plate, the strength of which is 
59,062 and the efficiency=59,062 X 1004-85,312=69.2 
per cent. 

A double-riveted butt joint is illustrated by Fig. 75, 
and the dimensions are as follows: 

P, inner row of rivets = 2^ in. 

P', outer row of rivets = 5^2 in. 

T of plate and butt straps = 7-16 in. 

D of hole and driven rivet —' 1 in. 



Fig. 75. 


Failure may occur in this joint in five distinct ways, 
which will be taken up in their order. 

1. Tearing of the plate at the outer row of rivets. The 
net strength at this point is P — D X T X T.S., which, 
expressed in plain figures, results as follows: 5.5 — 1 X 
4375 X 60,000 = 118,125. 

2. Shearing two rivets in double shear and one in single 
shear. Should this occur, the two rivets in the inner row 
would be sheared on both sides of the plate, thus being 
















CARE and operation 


191 


in double shear. Opposed to this strain there are four 
sections of rivets, two for each rivet. Then at the outer 
row of rivets in the unit strip there is the area of one 
rivet in single shear to be added. The total resistance, 
therefore, is 5A X S as follows: .7854 X 5 X 45,000 

= 176.715- 

3. The plate may tear at the inner row of rivets and 
shear one rivet in the outer row. The resistance in this 
case would be P' — 2D X T X T.S. + A X S as fol¬ 
lows*: 5.5 — 2 X 4375 X 60,000 + .7854 X 45.000 — 
127,218. 

4. Failure may occur by crushing in front of three 
rivets. Opposed to this is 3D X T X C, or 1 X 3 X 
•4375 X 95.ooo = 124,687. 

5. Failure may occur by crushing in front of two rivets 
and shearing one. The resistance is represented by 2D 
X T X C + iA X S; expressed in figures, 1 X 2 X 
•4375 X 95.ooo + .7854 X 45.ooo s= 118,468. 

The strength of a solid strip of plate $ l / 2 in. wide be¬ 
fore drilling is F X T X T.S., or 5.5 X 4375 X 60,000 
= 144,375, and the efficiency of the joint is 118,125 X 
100 -5- 144,375 =81.1 per cent. 

A triple-riveted butt joint is shown in Fig. 76, the 
dimensions of which are as follows: 

T = 7-16 in. 

D = 15-16 in. 

A = .69 in. 

P = 3 H in. 

P' = 6 y A in. 

Failure may occur in this joint in either one of five 
ways. 


192 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 

1. By tearing the plate at the outer row of rivets, where 
the pitch is 6^4 in. The net strength of the unit strip at 
this point is P' — D X T X T.S., found as follows: 

6-75 — -9375 X 4375 X 60,000 =152,578. 

2. By shearing four rivets in double shear and one in 
single shear. In this instance, of four rivets in double 
shear, each one presents two sections, and the one in single 
shear presents one, thus making a total of nine sections 
of rivets to be sheared, and the strength is 9A X S, or 
.69 X 9 X 45 >o°° = 279450 - 



Fig. 76. 


3. Rupture of the plate at the middle row of rivets and 
shearing one rivet. Opposed to this strain the strength 
is P' — 2D X T X T.S. + iA X S, equivalent to 6.75 
— (-9375 X 2) X 4375 X 60,000 + .69 X 90,000 = 
190,068. 

4. Crushing in front of four rivets and shearing one 
rivet. The resistance in this instance is 4D X T X C-f 
iA X S, or .9375 X 4 X 4375 X 90.000 + .69 X 45>ooo 
= 178,706. 
















CASE AND OPERATION 193 

5. Failure may be caused by crushing in front of five 
rivets, four of which pass through both the inside and 
outside butt straps, while the fifth rivet passes through 
the inside strap only, and the resistance is 5D X T X C, 
equivalent to .9375 X 5 X 90,000 = 184,570. 

The strength of the unit strip of plate before drilling 
is P'XTX T.S., or 6.75 X 4375 X 60,000 = 177,187, 
and the efficiency is 152,578 X 100 4- 177,187 = 86 per 
cent. 

With the constantly increasing demand for higher steam 
pressures, the necessity for higher efficiencies in the 
riveted joints of boilers becomes more apparent, and of 
late years quadruple and even quintuple-riveted butt joints 
have in many instances come into use. The quadruple 
butt joint when properly designed shows a high efficiency, 
in some cases as high as 94.6 per cent. Fig. 77 illustrates 
a joint of this kind, and the dimensions are as follows: 

T = ) 4 in. 

D = 15-16 in. 

A = .69 in. 

P, inner rows = i n - 

P', 1st outer row — 7)4 in. 

P", 2d outer row = 15 in. 

The two inner rows of rivets extend through the main 
plate and both the inside and outside cover plates or butt 
straps. --------- 

The two outer rows reach through the main plate and 
inside cover plate only, the first outer row having twice 
the pitch of the inner rows, and the second outer row has 
twice the pitch of the first. 


194 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Taking a strip or section of plate 15 in. wide (pitch of 
outer row), there are four ways in which this joint may 
fail. 

1. By tearing of the plate at the outer row of rivets. 
The resistance is P" — D X T X T.S., or 15 — -9375 X 
.5 X 60,000 — 421,875. 

2. By shearing eight rivets in double shear and three 
in single shear. The strength in resistance is 19A X S, 
or .69 X 19 X 45 >°°° — 5 ^ 9 > 95 °- 



3. By tearing at inner rows of rivets and shearing three 
rivets. The resistance is P" — 4D X T X T-S- + 3A 

S, or 15 — (.9375 X 4) X .5 X 60,000 + .69 X 3 
; 45,000 = 430,650. 

4. By tearing at the first outer row of rivets, where 
the pitch is 7>^ in. t and shearing one jrjv£t ? The resist- 




























CARE AND OPERATION 


195 


ance is P" — 2D XT X T.S. + A X S, or 15 — (.9375 
X 2) X .5 X 60,000 + .69 X 45>ooo = 424,800. 

It appears that the weakest part of the joint is at the 
outer row of rivets, where the net strength is 421,875. 
The strength of the solid strip of plate 15 in. wide before 
drilling is P" X T X T.S., or 15 X .5 X 60,000 = 450,- 
000, and the efficiency is 421,875 X 100 -r- 450,000 = 
937 P er cent. 

Staying Flat Surfaces. The proper staying or brac¬ 
ing of all flat surfaces in steam boilers is a highly import¬ 
ant problem, and while there are various methods of brac¬ 
ing resorted to, still, as Dr. Peabody says, “the staying of 
a flat surface consists essentially in holding it against pres¬ 
sure at a series of isolated points which are arranged in 
regular or symmetrical pattern.” The cylindrical shell of 
a boiler does not need bracing, for the very simple reason 
that the internal pressure tends to keep it cylindrical. On 
the contrary, the internal pressure has a constant tendency 
to bulge out the flat surface. Rule 2, Section 6, of the 
rules of the U. S. Supervising Inspectors provides as fol¬ 
lows : “No braces or stays hereafter to be employed in the 
construction of 'boilers shall be allowed a greater strain 
than 6,000 lbs. per square inch of section.” 

The weakest portion of the crow foot brace when in 
position is at the foot end, where it is connected to the 
head by two rivets. With a correctly designed brace the 
pull on these rivets is direct and the tensile strength of the 
material needs to be considered only, but if the form of the 
brace is such as to bring the rivet holes above or below 
the center line of the brace, or if the rivets are pitched 
too far from the body of the brace, there will be a certain 
leverage exerted upon the rivets in addition to the direct 


196 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


pull. Fig. 78 shows a brace of incorrect design and Figs. 
79 and 80 show braces designed along correct lines. 

The problem of properly staying the flat crown sheet 
of a horizontal fire-box boiler, especially a locomotive 
boiler, is a very difficult one and has taxed the inventive 
genius of some of the most eminent engineers. 


Fig. 78. 



Fig. 79. Fig. 80. 


For simplicity of construction and great strength the 
cylindrical form of fire-box known as the Morkon corru¬ 
gated furnace has proved to be very successful. This 
form of fire-box was in 1899 applied to a locomotive by 
Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, at the time assistant superin¬ 
tendent of motive power of the New York Central and 
Hudson River R. R. This furnace was rolled of ^-in. 
steel, is 59 in. internal diameter and 11 ft. 2*^ in. in 
length. It was tested under an external pressure of 500 
lbs. per square inch before being placed in the boiler. It 
is carried at the front end by a row of radial sling stays 
from the outside plate, and supported at the rear by the 
back head. Figs. 81 and 82 show respectively a sectional 















CARE AND OPERATION 


197 




r-i 

00 

bj> 

















































































198 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


view and an end elevation of this boiler. It will be seen 
at once that the question of stays for a fire-box of this 
type becomes very simple. 

Calculating the Strength of Stayed Surfaces. 
In calculations for ascertaining the strength of stayed 
surfaces, or for finding the number of stays required for 



Fig. 82. 


any given flat surface in a boiler, the working pressure 
being known, it must be remembered that each stay is 
subjected to the pressure on an area bounded by lines 
drawn midway between it and its neighbors. Therefore 
the area in square inches, of the surface to be supported 
by each stay, equals the square of the pitch or distance in 







CARE AND OPERATION 


199 


inches between centers of the points of connection of the 
stays to the flat plate. Thus, suppose the stays in a 
certain boiler are spaced 8 in. apart, the area sustained 
by each stay = 8 X 8'= 64 sq. in., or assume the stay 
bolts in a locomotive fire-box to be pitched 4*4 in. each 
way, the area supported by each stay bolt = 4 j 4 X 4/4 
— 20/4 sq. in. 

The minimum factor of safety for stays, stay bolts and 
braces is 8, and this factor should enter into all compu¬ 
tations of the strength of stayed surfaces. 

The pitch for stays depends upon the thickness of the 
plate to be supported, and the maximum pressure to be 
carried. 

In computing the total area of the stayed surface it 
is safe to assume that the flange of the plate, where it 
is riveted to the shell, sufficiently strengthens the plate 
for a distance of 2 in. from the shell, also that the tubes 
act as stays for a space of 2 in. above the top row. 
Therefore the area of that portion of the flat head or 
plate bounded by an imaginary line drawn at a distance 
of 2 in. from the shell and the same distance from the 
last row of tubes is the area to be stayed. This surface 
may be in the form of a segment of a circle, as with a 
cylindrical boiler, or it may be rectangular in shape, as 
in the case of a locomotive or other fire-box boiler. 
Other forms of stayed surfaces are often encountered, 
but in general the rules applicable to segments or rec¬ 
tangular figures will suffice for ascertaining the areas. 

By the use of Table 13 and the rule that follows, the 
area of the segmental portion of any boiler head may be 
ascertained. 


200 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Table 13 

Areas of Segments of a Circle 


Ratio 

Area 

Ratio 

Area 

Ratio 

Area 

Ratio 

Area 

.2 

.11182 

.243 

.14751 

.286 

.18542 

.329 

.22509 

.201 

.11262 

.244 

.14837 

.237 

.18633 

.33 

.22603 

.202 

.11343 

.245 

.14923 

.288 

.18723 

.331 

.22697 

.203 

.11423 

.246 

.15009 

.289 

.18814 

.332 

.22792 

.204 

.11504 

.247 

.15095 

.29 

.18905 

.333 

.22886 

.205 

.11584 

.248 

.15182 

.291 

.18996 

.334 

.22980 

.206 

.11605 

.249 

.15268 

.292 

.19086 

.335 

.23074 

.207 

.11746 

.25 

.15355 

.293 

.19177 

.336 

.23169 

.208 

.11827 

.251 

.15441 

.294 

.19268 

.337 

.23263 

.209 

.11908 

.252 

.15528 

.295 

.19360 

.338 

.23358 

.21 

.11990 

.253 

.15615 

.296 

.19451 

.339 

.23453 

.211 

.12071 

.254 

.15702 

.297 

.19542 

.34 

.23547 

.212 

.12153 

.255 

.15789 

.298 

.19634 

.341 

.23642 

.213 

.12235 

.256 

.15876 

.299 

.19725 

.342 

.23737 

.214 

.12317 

.257 

.15964 

.3 

.19817 

.343 

.23832 

.215 

.12399 

.258 

.16051 

.301 

.19908 

.344 

.23927 

.216 

.12481 

.259 

.16139 

.302 

.20000 

.345 

.24022 

.217 

.12563 

.26 

.10226 

.303 

.20092 

.346 

.24117 

.218 

.12646 

.261 

.16314 

.304 

.20184 

.347 

.24212 

.219 

.12729 

.262 

.16402 

.305 

.20276 

.348 

.24307 

.22 

.12811 

.263 

.16490 

.306 

.203C8 

.349 

.24403 

.221 

.12894 

.264 

.10578 

.307 

.20460 

.35 

.24498 

.222 

.12977 

.265 

.10606 

.308 

.20553 

.351 

.24593 

.223 

.13060 

.266 

.16755 

.309 

.20645 

.352 

.24689 

.224 

.13144 

.267 

.16843 

.31 

.20738 

.353 I 

.24784 

.225 

.13227 

.268 

.16932 

.311 

.20830 | 

.354 1 

.24880 

.226 

.13311 

.269 

.17020 

.312 

.20923 

.355 

.24976 

.227 

.13395 

.27 

.17109 

.313 

.21015 

.356 1 

.25071 

.228 

.13478 

.271 

.17198 

.314 

.21108 

.357 

.25167 

.229 

.13562 

.272 

.17287 

.315 

.21201 

.358 

.25263 

.23 

.13646 

.273 

.17376 

.316 

.21294 1 

.359 

.25359 

.231 

.13731 

.274 

.17465 

.317 

.21387 : 

.36 

.25455 

.232 

.13815 

.275 

.17554 I 

.318 

.21480 I 

.361 

.25551 

.233 

.13900 

.276 

.17644 

.319 

.21573 

.362 1 

.25G47 

.234 

.13984 

.277 

.17733 

.32 

.21667 

.363 

.25743 

.235 

.14069 

.278 

.17823 

.321 

.21700 

.364 

.25839 

.236 

.14154 

.279 

.17912 

.322 

.21853 

.365 : 

.25936 

.237 

.14239 

.280 

.18002 

.323 

.21947 

.366 : 

.26032 

.238 

.14324 

.281 

.18092 

.324 

.22040 

.367 

.26128 

.239 

.14409 

.282 

.18182 

.325 

.22134 

.368 

.26225 

.24 

.14494 

.283 

.18272 

.326 

.22228 

.369 

.26321 

.241 

14580 

.284 

.18362 

.327 

.22322 

.37 

.26418 

.242 

.14666 

.285 

.18452 

.328 

.22415 

.371 

.26514 


























CARE AND OPERATION 


201 


Table 13 —Continued 


Ratio 

Area 

Ratio 

Area 

Ratio 

Area 

Ratio 

Area 

.372 

.26611 

.405 

.29827 

.438 

.33086 

.471 

.36373 

.373 

.26708 

.406 

.29926 

.439 

.33185 

.472 

.36471 

.374 

.26805 

.407 

.30024 

.44 

.33284 

.473 

.36571 

.375 

.26901 

.408 

.30122 

.441 

.33384 

.474 ! 

.36671 

.376 

.26998 

.409 

.30220 

.442 

.33483 

.475 : 

.36771 

.377 

.27095 

.41 

.30319 

.443 

.33582 | 

.476 

.26871 

.378 

.27192 

.411 

.30417 

.444 

.33682 

.477 

.36971 

.379 

.27289 

.412 

.30516 

.445 

.33781 t 

.478 

.37071 

.38 

.27386 

.413 

.30614 

.446 

.33880 1 

.479 

.37171 

.381 

.27483 

.414 

.30712 

.447 

.33980 I 

.48 

.37270 

.382 

.27580 

.415 

.30811 

.448 

.34079 1 

.481 

.37370 

.383 

.27678 

.416 

.30910 

.449 

.34179 ! 

.482 

.37470 

.384 

.27775 

.417 

.31008 

.45 

.34278 

.483 

.37570 

.385 

.27872 

.418 

.31107 

.451 

.34378 

.484 

.37670 

.386 

.27969 

.419 

.31205 

.452 

.34477 

.485 

.37770 

.387 

.28067 

.42 

.31304 

.453 

.34577 

.486 

.37870 

.388 

.28164 

.421 

.31403 

.454 

.34676 

.487 

.37970 

.389 

.28262 

.422 

.31502 

.455 

.34776 

.488 

.38070 

.39 

.28359 

.423 

.31600 

.456 

.34876 

.489 

.38170 

.391 

.28457 

.424 

.31699 

.457 

.34975 

.49 

.38270 

.392 

.28554 

.425 

.31798 

.458 

.35075 

.491 

.38370 

.393 

.28652 

.426 

.31897 

.459 

.35175 

.492 

.38470 

.394 

.28750 

.427 

.31996 

.46 

.35274 

.493 

.38570 

.395 

.28848 

.428 

.32095 

.461 

.35374 

.494 

.38670 

.396 

.28945 

.429 

.32194 

.462 

.35474 

.495 

.38770 

.397 

.29043 

.43 

.32293 

.463 

.35573 

.496 

.38870 

.398 

.29141 

.431 

.32392 

.464 

.35673 

.497 

.38970 

.399 

.29239 

.432 

.32941 

.465 

.35773 

.498 

.39070 

.4 

.29337 

.433 

.32590 

.466 

.35873 

.499 

.39170 

.401 

.29435 

.434 

.32689 

.467 

.35972 

.5 

.39270 

.402 

.29533 

.435 

.32788 

.468 

.36072 



.403 

.29631 

.436 

.32887 

.469 

.36172 



.404 

.29729 

.437 

.32987 

.47 

| .36272 




Rule. Divide the height of the segment by the diam¬ 
eter of the circle. Then find the decimal opposite this 
ratio in the column headed “Area.” Multiply this area 
by the square of the diameter. Th# result is the re¬ 
quired area. 


























202 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Example. Diameter of circle = 72 in. Height of 
segment = 25 in. 25 -r- 72 = .347, which will be found 
in the column headed “Ratio,” and the area opposite this 
.24212. Then .24212 X 7 2 X 7 2 = ^ 2 55 sq. in., area 
of segment. 

Strength of Unstayed Surfaces. A simple rule for 
finding the bursting pressure of unstayed flat surfaces 
is that of Mr. Nichols, published in the Locomotive, 
February, 1890, and quoted by Professor Kent in his 
pocket-book. The rule is as follows: “Multiply the 
thickness of the plate in inches by ten times the tensile 
strength of the material used, and divide the product by 
the area of the head in square inches.” Thus: 

Diameter of head = 66 in. 

Thickness of head = in. 

Tensile strength = 55,000 lbs. 

Area of head = 3,421 sq. in. 

X 55,000 X io-r 3,421 = 100, which is the number 
of pounds pressure per square inch under which the un¬ 
stayed head would bulge. 

If we use a factor of safety of 8, the safe working 
pressure would be 100 - 4 - 8 = 12.5 lbs. per square inch, 
but as the strength of the unstayed head is at best an 
uncertain quantity it has not been considered in the fore¬ 
going calculations for bracing, except as regards that 
portion of it that is strengthened by the flange. 

In all calculations for the strength of stayed surfaces, 
and especially where diagonal crow foot stays are used, 
the strength of the rivets connecting the stay to the flat 
plate must be carefully considered. A large factor of 
safety, never less than 8, should be used, and the cross 
section of that portion of the foot of the stay through 


CARE AND OPERATION 


203 


which the rivet holes are drilled should be large enough, 
after deducting the .diameter of the hole, to equal the 
sectional area of the body of the stay. 

Dished Heads. In boiler work where it is possible to 
use dished, or “bumped up” heads as they are sometimes 
called, this type of head is rapidly coming into use. 
Dished heads may be used in the construction of steam 
drums, also in many cases for dome-covers, thus obviat¬ 
ing the necessity of bracing. 

As there has been a constantly growing demand for 
an increase in the power of locomotives, and as the boiler 
is the source of power, builders have been constrained to 
change the design of locomotive boilers in such manner 
as would bring about an enlargement of both the heating 
surface and the grate area. Consequently the old wagon 
top type of boiler, with the fire-box down between the 
drivers and close to the track, has been largely superseded 
by the modern straight-top boiler having a wide fire¬ 
box, which as applied to freight engines with low wheels 
is usually above the rear drivers, but as applied to passen¬ 
ger engines with high wheels is usually behind the rear 
drivers and supported by trailing wheels, as in “Atlantic 
4-4-2,” “Prairie 2-6-2” and the “Pacific 4-6-2” types. 
The introduction of the wide fire-box and consequent 
increase of great area has made it possible to burn cheaper 
grades of coal than was possible with the older type of 
boiler. It may be used (with some modifications) for 
both soft and hard coal. 

'Fig. 83 shows a sectional elevation of a modern loco¬ 
motive boiler, and Fig. 84 an end view of one-half of 
the flue sheet and one-half of the back head. 

The staying of the heads and crown sheet is clearly 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 




(4 

© 

o 

a 

e 

o 

s 


a 

o 

8 

03 


eo 

00 

bo 

£ 



















































CARE AND OPERATION 


205 


illustrated. The general dimensions of the fire-box at 
the present time varies from 8 ft. to io ft. 4 in. in length, 
with a width of from 40 to 42 in., and a depth of 6 to 
7 ft. in front, and 5 ft. 6 in. to 6 ft. 6 in. at the back, 
the size depending upon the type of engine and the kind 
of work it was designed to perform. 



Fig. 84. 


The diameter of the barrel or cylindrical portion of 
locomotive boilers built for train service varies all the 
way from 60 to 78 in., and some recent splendid exam¬ 
ples of the locomotive builders’ art have boilers 83 in. in 
diameter. 


Questions 


164. What are the four vital organs of a locomotive 
boiler ? 

165. Describe the mud ring. 

166. Describe in general terms the fire-box. 

167. How are the sides of the fire-box stayed? 

168. Describe a stay bolt. 










206 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


169. How far apart, center to center, are stay bolts 
usually spaced ? 

170. What causes stay bolts to break? 

171. Why are stay bolts made hollow? 

172. Describe the flexible stay bolt. 

173. What advantage has a flexible stay -bolt over a 
rigid one? 

174. Is it necessary to strengthen the crown sheet by 
stays ? 

175. Why does the crown sheet need to be supported? 

176. Name the three methods usually employed for 
staying the crown sheet. 

177. Describe crown bars, and how applied. 

178. Why is there a space preserved between the 
crown bars and top of crown sheet? 

179. How are the crown bolts attached? 

180. Why are thimbles placed between the crown bars 
and top of crown sheet? 

181. Describe the radial system of staying the crown 
sheet. 

182. What is the principal defect in this system? 

183. Describe the Belpaire system. 

184. What great advantage has this form of fire-box 
over others? 

185. Why are crown sheets usually made to slope 
downwards from the front to the back end? 

186. How are the heads of the boiler usually stayed? 

187. What are diagonal crow foot stays? 

188. How is the flue sheet braced? 

189. What is a gusset stay, and how is it connected 
to the head and shell? 

190. Why should the flue sheet be thicker than the 
shell? 


CARE AND OPERATION 


207 


191. What advantage is there in setting the tubes in 
vertical rows? 

192. What is the usual diameter of locomotive tubes ? 

193. How are the tubes made water-tight in the sheet ? 

194. Describe the Prosser tube expander and method 
of using it. 

195. Describe the Dudgeon roller expander. 

196. How is it used? 

197. What is meant by the expression tensile strength 
of a boiler sheet ? 

198. What is the usual tensile strength of steel boiler 
plate ? 

199. What should be the tensile strength of the rods 
from which rivets are made? 

200. What is the shearing resistance of iron rivets ? 

201. What is the shearing resistance of steel rivets? 

202. What is meant by the efficiency of a riveted joint? 

203. What type of joint should be used for plates ^2 
in. thick or more? 

204. Give the diameter of rivet, pitch, and efficiency 
of a double-riveted joint. 

205. What is the usual efficiency of single-riveted 
joints? 

206. How should double-riveted joints be designed in 
order to obtain the highest efficiency? 

207. Describe a triple-riveted butt joint. 

208. How should a triple-riveted butt joint be designed 
in order to obtain the highest efficiency? 

209. What is meant by the expression, the unit strip 
or net section of plate, as used in calculating the effi¬ 
ciency of a riveted joint? 

210. What is the usual efficiency of the triple-riveted 
butt joint? 


208 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


211 . What efficiency per cent does the quadruple-riv¬ 
eted butt joint show when properly designed? 

212. Why is it that the cylindrical portion of a boiler 
does not require to be stayed ? 

213. What effect does the pressure inside a boiler have 
upon flat surfaces, such as the heads, crown sheet, etc.? 

214. Where is the weakest portion of a crow foot 
brace ? 

215. How is the area in square inches to be supported 
by each stay, ascertained? 

216. What is the minimum safety factor for stays and 
stay bolts? 

217. What two factors govern the pitch for stays? 

218. What portions of the heads do not need to be 
braced ? 

219. Is it possible to weld boiler seams? 

220. Describe in general terms the modern locomotive 
boiler. 

221. What are the general dimensions of the fire-box? 


THROTTLE AND DRY PIPE. 


Having studied at some length the construction of the 
boiler and the generation of steam, it is now in order to 
examine into the method by which the steam is conveyed 
to the cylinders of the engine, where it, or rather the 
heat that it contains, performs its work. The main fact¬ 
ors in the transmission of the steam from the boiler to the 
interior of the cylinders, and from there to the open air, 
are the throttle valve and pipe, the dry pipe, the steam 
pipes and passages, the valves and ports, the exhaust 
passages and ports, and the exhaust nozzles. These will 
each be described in regular order, with the exception of 
the valves and ports, which will be fully described in the 
chapters on valves and valve setting. 

The steam dome O, Fig. 55, is a cylindrical chamber 
made of boiler plate and riveted to the top of the boiler, 
usually directly over the fire-box. The function of the 
dome is to serve as a steam chamber that is elevated as 
high as possible above the surface of the water in the 
boiler, in order that the steam supplied to the cylinders, 
all of which is drawn from this chamber, may be as dry 
as it is possible to have it. • 

The steam is conducted from the dome to the cylin¬ 
ders through the dry pipe P-Q-R, Fig. 55, which ex¬ 
tends from the top of <the dome to the front flue sheet or 
head of the boiler. Connected to the front end of the 
dry pipe, inside the smoke box, are two cast iron curved 
pipes 1-2, Fig. 85, called the steam pipes, which conduct 
the steam to the steam chests, or valve chests as they arc 
sometimes called. The horizontal portion of the dry pipe 
209 


LOCOMOTIVE TOILERS 




Fig. 85. 














































































































CARE AND OPERATION 


211 


extending through the boiler is made of wrought iron, 
and the vertical portion T, Fig. 55, called the throttle 
pipe, and which is within the dome, is made of cast iron. 
At the top of this pipe, near the top of the dome, the 
throttle U, Fig. 55, for controlling the steam, is usually 
located, although not always, as it is sometimes placed in 
the smoke box at the front end R of the dry pipe. 



Formerly the throttle valve was a plain slide valve 
that moved upon a seat in which were ports similar in 
form to the steam ports in the valve chests, but smaller 
in size. The principal objection to this type of throttle 
valve for a locomotive was that the pressure of the steam 
upon it when closed made it very difficult to open the 
throttle gradually, or to regulate or adjust it while open 
—two very important points in the operation of a loco- 




















212 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


motive. A much better form of throttle has been largely 
adopted in late years. This valve is shown at U, Fig. 55, 
and on a larger scale by Figs. 86 and 87, which give a 
sectional view and a plan of the throttle pipe, valve, and 
throttle lever. 




The valve V, Fig. 86, is a double poppet valve, having 
two circular disks D and E, which cover two correspond¬ 
ing openings in the case C on the end of the pipe P. When 
the valve is raised and the disks are off their seats the 
steam flows in around their edges, as shown by the 
arrows. The disks are not the same diameter, the top 
one being slightly larger. The steam pressure in the 
boiler acts upon the top of disk D and upon the bottom 
of disk E. If the two disks were exactly the same in di¬ 
ameter the valve would be balanced, but this is not de- 


















CARE AND OPERATION 


213 


sirable, as there might thus be a possibility of its being 
opened accidentally after the engineer had closed it. 
There is also another reason why the lower disk must be 
smaller in diameter than the upper one, viz., that it may 
be introduced through the top opening of the casing C, 
so as to cover’the lower opening. There is thus a slightly 
greater pressure on the top surface of the upper disk 
tending to keep the valve closed, than there is on the bot¬ 
tom surface of the lower disk tending to raise the valve 
and open it. This arrangement of the parts causes the 
throttle to stay in any position it may be placed, while at 
the same time it moves comparatively easily. The means 
whereby the throttle is opened and closed are also shown 
in Figs. 86 and 87. 

The stem W-X of the valve V extends downwards and 
connects with the upper arm of the bell crank B, Fig. 86. 
Connected to the lower arm of this bell crank, and ex¬ 
tending through the back boiler head into the cab, is a rod 
R, called the throttle stem. This rod passes through a 
steam-tight stuffing box in the boiler head. The throttle 
lever Y, Fig. 87, is connected to the throttle stem at L 
and attached to a link N-O at O. This link is con¬ 
nected to the boiler head by a stud and pin at N, Fig. 
87. The link is free to vibrate slightly, which enables 
the connection at L to move in a straight line. This pro¬ 
vision causes the stem R, Fig. 86, to also move in a 
straight line in the stuffing box 5, which is very neces¬ 
sary in order that it may be kept steam-tight. Referring 
to Fig. 87, which is a plan view, the throttle lever Y is 
fitted with a latch 1 that gears into the curved rack 2-3, 
in order to hold the throttle in any required position. 
The latch 1 is operated by a trigger 4, connected by the 
rod. 


214 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The steam, being admitted by the throttle valve V into 
the throttle pipe P, passes on into the dry pipe P-Q-R, 
Fig. 55. This pipe, after passing through the front flue 
sheet of the boiler, is fitted with a T-pipe, thus dividing 
it into two branches to which the steam pipes are con¬ 
nected. These connections, which are all within the 
smoke-box, are clearly illustrated in Fig. 85, to which 
reference is now made. 

The steam pipes 1 and 2 are connected to each of the 
two branches of the T-pipe at their top ends and to the 
cylinder castings at their bottom ends. The steam is tnus 
conducted to the valve chests. Fig. 85 shows a sectional 
view of one of the steam pipes, 2 on the right and a sec¬ 
tion of one of the exhaust pipes 3 on the left. The steam 
pipes are exposed to great changes of temperature as a 
result of their being within the smokebox and to which 
they are subjected, making it very difficult to keep the 
joints tight. 

Another difficulty is also generally encountered in the 
assembling of the various parts forming these connec¬ 
tions, as, for instance, if the upper end of pipe 4 in the 
cylinder casting, Fig. 85, were either too near or too far 
from the center line of the engine it would be necessary 
to move the end of pipe 2, either to the right or to the 
left, in order to bring it in line for connecting to 4. It is 
therefore necessary that there be a certain degree of 
flexibility in these connections, and this is accomplished 
by the use of ball joints. Fig. 88 illustrates a ball joint. 
The end of one of the pipes is turned into the form of a 
sphere or globe, and the end of the other pipe is formed 
into a corresponding concave shape, as shown in Fig. 88. 
This form of joint permits a lateral movement in either 


CARE AND OPERATION 


215 


direction of the lower end of pipe 2 to bring it in line 
with the upper end of pipe 4. 



Pig. 88. 


Another and still better form of flexible joint is illus¬ 
trated in Fig. 89. In this joint a ring is interposed be¬ 
tween the ends of the pipes. One side of this ring is 
spherical and the other side is flat, the ends of the pipes 



Fig. 89. 


being shaped to correspond. With this form of joint 
the' pipes are slightly adjustable in every direction, and 







216 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the joints accommodate themselves to any and all motion 
that may be caused by expansion and contraction. 

In order that the student may be able to clearly under¬ 
stand the route taken by the steam in its passage from 
the boiler to the cylinders and thence to the smoke stack, 
the following clear exposition of this subject, together 
with the illustrations (Figs. 90, 91 and 92), is here re¬ 
produced from an article by Mr. W. G. Wallace, pub¬ 
lished in the January issue of the Locomotive Firemen’s 
Magazine: 


a a 



Fig. 90. Longitudinal Sectional View of Cylinder. 


“Steam is generated at or near the heating surfaces of 
the boiler and rises into the dome. When the throttle 
valve is open steam enters the stand pipe, and follows, 
through it, to the dry pipe to the “nigger head,” or tee, 
in the smokebox. It then enters the steam pipes and is 
conducted to the cylinder saddle, thence through the 
passage A A (see illustration) to the steam chest. If 


















CARE AND OPERATION 


217 


the valve is now in the center of its seat it can go no far¬ 
ther, but when the port is uncovered by the valve, steam 
is admitted to the end of the cylinder nearest the opened 
admission port, shown at B B, and exerts a pressure on 
the piston nearly equal to that of the steam chest pressure 
while the port is open. This pressure is exerted on the 
piston and transmitted to the piston rod and connecting 
rod to the crank pin, and produces a rotative effect on 
the wheel in proportion to the pressure and the position 



Fig. 91. Top View looking down on Valve Seat and Cylinder Saddle. 


of the crank pin above or below a line drawn through the 
center of the main driving axle and cylinder. If the 
steam is cut off before the piston has reached the end 
of its stroke, the valve having closed the port, the steam 
confined in the cylinder forces the piston to the comple¬ 
tion of its stroke by its expansive force acting like a 





















































218 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


spring. This is the expansion of the steam in the cylin¬ 
der. Now, the valve having traveled far enough for¬ 
ward, the steam is admitted to the other end of the cylin¬ 
der and forces the piston forward, and the exhaust cavity 
in the valve extends from the admission port to the ex- 



Fig. 92. Cross Sectional View of Cylinder and Saddle, showing 
Construction. 


haust port in the valve seat, to allow the exhaust steam, 
or the steam that has pushed the piston back, to escape 
through the admission port which it entered, pass under 
the valve, over the bridge, and into the exhaust passage 
C, through the cylinder saddle again, into the exhaust 




















carl: and operation 


219 


pipe and out through the nozzle tip, through the petticoat 
or draft pipe and out of the stack. 

“There are usually five openings in the cylinder saddle 
to the steam chest, as shown in the illustrations. Fig. 90 
shows a sectional view if the cylinder was cut in two 
and lengthwise through its center. Fig. 91 is a view 
looking down on the valve seat and cylinder saddle. Fig. 
9 2 is an end view showing its construction, and the dotted 
lines represent lines that cannot be seen. Ports A A are 
to admit steam to the steam chest when the throttle is 
open. Ports B, B, and C exhaust the steam from the 
cylinder when the exhaust cavity of the valve extends 
over the bridge ports B and C. 

“Opening D in the cylinder saddle is to connect with 
the steam pipes to the steam passage for the purpose of 
supplying steam to the steam chest, and opening E is to 
allow the steam to escape from the cylinder through ports 
B and C to the exhaust.” 


steam gauges and pop valves. 

As the steam gauge is an instrument that is particu¬ 
larly interesting to the fireman, it is fitting that a short 
description of it be inserted here. There are different 
types of steam gauges in use, but the one most com¬ 
monly used, and which no doubt is the most reliable, is 
known as the Bourdon spring gauge. This gauge con¬ 
sists of a thin, curved, flattened metallic tube, closed at 
both ends and connected to the steam space of the boiler 
by a small pipe, bent at some portion of its length into a 
curve or circle that becomes filled with water of condensa¬ 
tion, and thus prevents the hot live steam from coming 


220 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



directly in contact with the spring, while at the same 
time the full pressure of steam in the boiler acts upon 
the spring, tending to straighten it. The end or ends of 
the spring being free to move, and connected by suitable 









CARE AND OPERATION 


221 


geared rack and pinion with the pointer of the gauge, 
this hand or pointer is caused to move across the dial, 
thus indicating the pressure of steam per square inch in 
the boiler. When there is no pressure in the boiler the 
hand should point to o. 

Steam gauges should be tested frequently by compar¬ 
ing them wtih a test gauge that has been tested against a 
column of mercury. 



Fig. 94. Crosby Duplex Gauge. 


Crosby Improved Locomotive Pressure Gauge. At¬ 
tention is called to the cut, Fig. 93, of the Crosby 
improved locomotive pressure gauge, showing the Bour¬ 
don tube springs and their mechanism. It will be ob¬ 
served that the tube springs are attached to the socket 
and to the tips, to which the lever mechanism is con¬ 
nected in-a new way. 

The method practiced is to have these attachments of 
the tube springs made by means of solder or other metal 
of low-fusing point, and, while this may be safe in all 


222 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



low-pressurage gauges, or where in their location in use 
they are not subjected to great heat, yet it is hazardous 
where high pressures of steam are to be measured bv 
them, especially where there is liability of the admission 
of such steam into the tube springs. In such case the 








soldering material may soften, and under the high 
pressure be forced out, causing a leak and the destruction 
of the gauge. 

In the Crosby improved locomotive pressure gauge, the 
tube springs are connected at each end with their respect- 


226 


CARE AND OPERATION 


224 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ive parts by screw threads, without the use of any solder¬ 
ing material whatever, thus insuring tight joints under 
all conditions of heat and pressure. 

In addition to the improved Bourdon tube springs so 
employed, careful attention has been given to the lever 
mechanism which transmits the free movements of these 
Bourdon tube springs to the index. They have been de¬ 
signed and constructed not only to convey the full move¬ 
ment of the tube springs, but so that they may be 
renewed without difficulty in case of repairs or recon¬ 
struction. 



Fig. 97. American Pressure Gauge—Sectional View. 

American Locomotive Gauge, with non-corrosive 
movement, Figs. 96 and 97. It is constructed of metals 
of superior quality, to withstand the constant vibration 
to which it is subjected. The spring is made of very 
heavy seamless drawn tube of superior quality. The 
connections are made of hard phosphor bronze. The 
movement is made with a wide faced sector, which will 


CARE AND OPERATION 


225 


outwear three of the ordinary sectors. The pinion and 
sector shafts are made of hard phosphor bronze, and 
the hair spring is made of bronze, making the gauge non- 
corrosive, rigid, and adding materially to the life of the 
gauge. 


THE WATER GLASS, AND GAUGE COCKS. 

Equally as important as the steam gauge, is the water 
glass, or water gauge, on all steam boilers, but especially 
so on the locomotive boiler. The water glass and gauge 
cocks constitute the only indicator by which the engineer 
and fireman are enabled to know when the water in the 
boiler is at a safe height. 

In fact, so far as regards safety to life and prop¬ 
erty, this indicator is in reality of more importance 
than the steam gauge is, owing to the fact that, in 
addition to the steam gauge for controlling the pres¬ 
sure, there is the pop valve, which automatically 
allows the excess steam to escape, even though the steam 
gauge should be out of order, thus preventing an explo¬ 
sion of the boiler from high pressure steam, while on 
the other hand, should the steam pressure drop below 
the working point, no serious results would follow except 
inconvenience in handling the train. 

But the situation changes when we come to consider the 
function of the water glass. Here is a device upon which 
the enginemen rely for information regarding the exact 
height of the water in their boiler, and should it make a 
false showing as a result of its valves becoming clogged 
with scale or mud, or it may be on account of wrong con¬ 
nections, the consequence is that one of two dangerous 
extremes is liable to be reached, viz., either too much 



LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


water in the boiler, and the engine working water, or too 
little water in the boiler, and a burned crown sheet. 

One cause of erratic action on the part of a water glass 
is a reduction of pressure in the top end of the glass. This 
is liable to occur if the top end of the glass is connected to 



CARE AND OPERATION 


227 


the turret, or, in fact, is supplied with steam from any 
other source except an independent cock on the boiler 
head. 

There should be a small dry pipe inside the boiler lead¬ 
ing from the top cock of the water glass to the dome. 
An even pressure of dry steam will thus be supplied to 
the top of the water glass, thus preventing the excessive 
jumping up and down of the water in the glass. 



Fig. 99. American Duplex Air-Brake Gauge, Westinghouse Style. 


On the other hand if the top end of the glass is con¬ 
nected in such a manner that the steam supply is taken 
from the turret, or any other source where it would be 
likely to be influenced by the draft of steam used by the 
injectors when in operation, the result would be a slight 
reduction of pressure in the top end of the glass and the 
water in the glass would rise above the level of the water 
in the boiler. 


228 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


A very slight decrease in the steam pressure in the pipe 
leading to the glass will cause this trouble. 

With reference to the location of the water glass and 
gauge cocks, the Railway Master Mechanics’ Association 
recommend that, the lowest visible part of water glass 
and the lowest gauge cock be not less than three inches 
above highest point of crown sheet for curved and flat 
crown sheets, and that water glass and gauge cocks be 
as near vertical center line of boiler as they can conve¬ 
niently be located without having gauge cocks out of 
reach of engineer. 

They also recommend 8 inches exposed length of 
water glass and three gauge cocks with vertical spacing 
3-inch centers. Replies received by the committee indi¬ 
cated that crown sheets sloped three-eighths of an inch 
per foot represented very general practice, and that this 
slope has proved satisfactory. For various reasons an 
automatic low-water detector seemed not to be a desir¬ 
able attachment to locomotive boilers. 

As regards the proper height for carrying water in 
the boiler, Mr. W. G. Wallace, past president, Traveling 
Engineers’ Association, makes the following suggestions: 

Wet steam is less effective than dry steam. When the 
water is too high in the boiler it is carried into the dry 
pipe and to the valves and cylinders when throttle is 
open. More water is used, more fuel consumed and the 
efficiency of the engine is decreased. The wet steam or 
water carried over into the steam chests and cylinders 
destroys the lubrication and increases the friction on the 
valves and cylinders. Keep your crown sheet wet, but 
use steam as dry as possible to make time or pull tonnage 
always. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


229 


TANK WATER STRAINER. 

The illustration, Fig. 99a, is a sectional view of a 
strainer and valve designed and patented by Mr. Joseph 
McAfee of West Philadelphia, Pa. 

Mr. McAfee says of his invention: 

“Undeniably the prompt and reliable feeding with 
water of the boiler of a locomotive engine is one of the 
prime conditions for the reliability of the railway service 
in general. Reliable train service cannot be had without 
the assurance of a reliable feed water supply to the boiler 
of the locomotive under all conditions and at all times, 
as this is the foundation for the prompt and ample gen¬ 
erating of the necessary motive power. Still it is a fact 
that designers of locomotive engines, as a rule, do not 
pay that attention to the injector which its importance 
calls for, and beyond specifying the type and size desired, 
hardly any other attention is paid to its most desirable lo¬ 
cation and other points, with a view to assisting in the 
development of the best qualities and assuring reliable 
service. 

“Injectors, as any other product of human endeavor, 
are subject to defect and failure; the very mechanical 
nature of the instrument calls for consideration in its 
arrangement and that of its accessories which, when 
properly considered at the time of building the engine, 
would go a long way toward preventing annoyance, ex¬ 
pense, and sometimes serious inconvenience. It is per¬ 
haps within the province of this paper to point out some 
features in this direction. The little conical copper strain¬ 
ers inside of the feed pipes should be abolished, as they 
are a nuisance and the cause of more trouble than they 


230 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


McAfet TanK Strain<r. 
Explanatory fiqvrfl. 
'Hoi drawn to Scale 




fay Sleeve-* 

hsidt 

S quori 

Sochtf 

(5o»tablf Lenq'K) 



Sporarorand hand taich 


vWrmnmiminmmmiurL 

Top of MnH 


Vjlft Stem squortf 
Volve SVm S(rm 

Upp<f icrKDca,, 



Fig. 99-a. The McAfee Tank Water Strainer and Valve Combined. 










































































































































CARE AND OPERATION 


231 


get credit for. If a premium had been put upon design¬ 
ing something to readily catch and retain any dirt in such 
manner as to materially reduce the water supply, these 
strainers would undoubtedly have received the first prize. 
The very fact that they are inside of the pipe is objection¬ 
able. The strainer should be outside the pipe. The size 
of the strainer should be such that, even if half filled with 
foreign matter, it would retain the full pipe capacity. It 
should also be so designed that it could be readily cleaned 
at any time and in a very few seconds. Such strainers 
can be obtained in the market, and their cost would be 
more than compensated for by avoiding troubles often 
caused by their absence. The free and unrestricted 
passage of the water from the tank to the injector on a 
locomotive is of the utmost importance. It is the expe¬ 
rience of the engineer and those who have to deal with 
the question that ordinary strainers are liable to become 
stopped up and obstructed with the accumulations of dirt 
and other matter which gets into the tank and prevents 
the proper flow of water to the injector, thereby causing 
a great deal of trouble and loss of time. 

“To obviate this difficulty the McAfee improved 
strainer and valve has been designed, which, while re¬ 
taining the full pipe sizes in the perforated strainer, is 
spacious enough to allow for the accumulation of the 
obstructing substances before described, during the ordi¬ 
nary run of the locomotive, and still allow a free, passage 
for the water from the tank to the injector. By the use 
of this improved strainer the reducing of the capacity 
of the injector from a short water supply will be alto¬ 
gether avoided, and the injector will be permitted by the 
continuous flow of the water in full volume from the 



232 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



tank to throw its full capacity and reduce the chances of 
its breaking to an infinitesimal degree. The very large 
outlet at the bottom will enable the engineer to clean the 
strainer in the shortest time possible/’ 

POP VALVES. 

Safety Valves. One of the prime causes of boiler 
explosion is the gradual and insidious increase of the 
pressure of steam beyond the endurance of the boiler; 


Fig. 100. Crosby Spring-Seat Locomotive Check Valve. 

but to every boiler there is a limit of pressure within 
which it is substantially safe. This point should be ascer¬ 
tained by hydraulic test annually, and no excess of 
pressure beyond this limit should be allowed at any time. 
The only sure preventive is a safety valve which is all 











CARE AND OPERATION 


233 


its name implies. The diameter of a safety valve is not 
a test of its efficiency. A valve is effective in direct pro¬ 
portion to its lift, other things being equal. The higher 
the pressure of steam, the less will a common safety valve 
lift; at most, its lift is very slight, and with the increas¬ 
ing pressure of steam, the lift will not increase suffi¬ 
ciently to relieve the boiler under all circumstances; but 
the pressure can and may increase until an explosion 
occurs, while the valve is in operation. The common 
safety valve has much to answer for. Owing to the 
great friction of its parts, it will not open until the 
pressure is above what it is set at; it will continue to 
blow after the pressure of the steam has fallen far below 
the point of opening; it wastes large quantities of valu¬ 
able steam in operation. There are other grave faults, 
but these stated are sufficient to condemn it. Instead of 
standing guard over the boiler, a sentry has to be set 
over it, and should he by accident, ignorance or negli¬ 
gence, not properly attend to his duties, the boiler is with¬ 
out any safeguard whatever. Hence the importance of 
any device which shall reduce the danger to a minimum. 
A safety valve which is automatic, certain in its action, 
prompt in opening and closing at the required point of 
pressure, and which can be fully relied upon to relieve 
the boiler under all circumstances, is what is necessary. 

The Crosby Locomotive Pop Safety Valve. Fig. 
ioi. Description of the Valve. The valve proper B B 
rests upon two flat annual seats V V and W W on the 
same plane, and is held down against the pressure of 
steam by the steel spiral spring S. The tension of this 
spring is obtained by screwing down the threaded bolt L 
at the top of the cylinder K. The area contained between 


234 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



Fig. 101. Crosby Locomotive Pop Safety Valve. 


the seats W and V is what the steam pressure acts upon 
ordinarily to overcome the resistance of the spring. The 
area contained within the smaller seat W W is not acted 
upon until the valve opens. 











































CARE AND OPERATION 


235 


The larger seat V V is formed on the upper edge of 
the shell or body of the valve A. The smaller seat W W 
is formed on the upper edge of a cylindrical chamber or 
well C C, which is situated in the center of the shell or 
body of the valve, and is held in its place by arms D D, 
radiating horizontally, and connecting it with the body 
or shell of the valve. These arms have passages E E for 
the escape of the steam or other fluid from the well into 
the air when the valve is open. This well is deepened so 
as to allow the wing X X of the valve proper to project 
down into it far enough to act as guides, and the flange 
G is for the purpose of modifying the size of the passages 
E E and for turning upward the steam issuing therefrom. 

Action of the Valve when Working under Steam. 
When the pressure under the valve is within about one 
pound of the maximum pressure required, the valve 
opens slightly, and the steam escapes through the outer 
seat into the cylinder and thence into the air; the steam 
also enters through the inner seat into the well, and 
thence through the passages in the arms to the air. When 
the pressure in the boiler attains the maximum point, the 
valve rises higher and steam is admitted into the well 
faster than it can escape through the passages in the 
arms, and its pressure rapidly accumulates under the in¬ 
ner seat; this pressure, thus acting upon an additional 
area, overcomes the increasing resistance of the spring, 
and forces the valve wide open, thereby quickly reliev¬ 
ing the boiler. When the pressure within the boiler is 
lessened, the flow of steam into the well is also lessened, 
and the pressure therein diminishing, the valve gradu¬ 
ally settles down; this action continues until the area of 
the opening into the well is less than the area of the 
apertures in the arms, and the valve promptly closes. 


236 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The point of opening can be readily changed while 
under steam by screwing the threaded bolt at the top of 
the cylinder up for diminishing, or down for increasing, 
the pressure. 

The seats of this valve are flat, and do not cut or wear 
out and leak so readily as beveled seats. The valve is 
made of the best gun metal. 

Directions. Setting. Screw the head-bolt which 
compresses the spring up for diminishing, or down for 
increasing, the pressure, until the valve opens at the 
pressure desired, as indicated by the steam gauge; secure 
the head-bolt in this position by means of the lock-nut; 
for regulating the loss of escaping steam, turn the screw 
ring G up for increasing, or down for decreasing it. 

Caution. Care should be taken that no red lead, chips, 
or any hard substance be left in the pipes or couplings 
when connecting the valve with the boiler. Never make 
a direct connection by screwing a taper thread into the 
valve, but make the joint with the valve by the shoulder. 

Repairing. This valve, having flat seats on the same 
plane, is very easily made tight if it leaks, by following 
these directions, viz.: With an ordinary lathe slightly 
turn off the two concentric seats of the valve and valve 
shell or base respectively, being careful that this is done 
in the same plane and perpendicular to the axis of the 
valve. The valve will then fit tightly on one valve shell. 
If no lathe is at hand, then grind the valve proper on a 
perfectly flat surface of iron or steel, until its two bear¬ 
ings are exactly on a plane and with good smooth sur¬ 
faces ; then take the shell and grind its seats in precisely 
the same manner; rinse both parts in water and put to¬ 
gether, and the valve will be found to be tight; to ascer¬ 
tain when the bearings are on the same plane, use a good 


CARE AND OPERATION 


237 


steel straight edge. Do not grind the valve to its seats 
on the shell by grinding them together, but grind each 
part separately as above stated. 

The Crosby pop safety valve and muffler combined, 
possesses outside means for adjusting or regulating it 
under changes of pressure, without disturbing its con¬ 
nections or parts. 



External View. Sectional View with Lever. 

Fig. 102. Crosby Muffled Locomotive Pop Safety Valve. 



American Improved Locomotive Muffled Pop 
Safety Valve. This valve has many new features, one 
of which is the manner in which it is adjusted; both the 
blowing-off pressure and the blow-down are adjusted 

















238 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


from the top of the valve without removing the muffler 
casing—simply remove the small top cap. The blowing- 
off pressure is adjusted by means of a compression screw, 
the same as is used in all locomotive valves. The blow¬ 
down is adjusted by means of a hexagon nut just below 



Fig. 103. American Locomotive Safety Valve. 


the compression screw. This nut is connected by means 
of a yoke and standards to the relief ring, which is raised 
or lowered to adjust the blow-back where the case may 
require, the nut acting as a swivel. The same lock-nut 
locks both the compression screw and the 'blow-down 
nut, as shown in the sectional cut, Fig. 103. 

































CARE AND OPERATION 


239 


The noise of the escaping steam is lessened by the 
muffling device, as shown in cut. 

Springs. These springs are made of the highest grade 
of steel, carefully tempered, and are ground square on 
the end. Each spring is tested to double its capacity. 



i 


Fig. 104. Spring for American 
Locomotive Pop Valve. 


’ig. 105. Crane Pop Valve— 
Sectional View. 



Crane's Patent Improved Pop Safety Valves. Fig. 
105. Their construction embodies a self-adjusting fea¬ 
ture automatically regulating the "pop” of the valve; in 
other words, maintains the least waste of steam between 
the opening and closing points, an improvement which 
will be readily recognized, as there is no necessity of re¬ 
adjusting to regulate the "pop” on reasonable changes in 
the set pressure. 












240 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


This is more clearly explained, as follows: In all pop 
safety valves it is necessary to have a “pop/’ or huddling 
chamber into which the steam expands when main valve 
opens, thereby creating an additional lifting force pro¬ 
portionate to this increased area and greater than the 
force of spring, thus holding the valve open until pressure 
is relieved. Means must also be provided to relieve this 




Fig. 106. Crane Muffled 
Pop Valve. 


Fig. 107. Crane Muffled Pop 
Valve—Sectional View. 


“pop” chamber of pressure in order to allow the valve 
to close promptly and easily. This is accomplished by a 
self-adjusting auxiliary valve and spring, which are en¬ 
tirely independent of the main valve and spring; and to 
further explain their operation, the steam in “pop” cham¬ 
ber finds a passage through holes or ports into an annular 




CARE AND OPERATION 


241 


space provided in the auxiliary valve or disc, and by rea¬ 
son of the light auxiliary spring, this pressure lifts the 
auxiliary valve and allows the steam in “pop” chamber to 
gradually escape, thus permitting a greater range in set¬ 
ting pressures with the least waste of steam and at the 
same time supplying a cushion or balancing medium, 
thereby preventing any chattering or hammering and af¬ 
fording the easiest possible action in closing. 



Fig. 108. Prindle’s Patent Syphon Cocks. 


To change pressure, unscrew the top bolts and remove 
the cap, slacken lock nut; to increase pressure, turn 
screw plug down (to the right) ; to decrease pressure, 
turn screw plug up (to the left), then tighten lock nut. 

Should the valve waste too much steam between the 
opening and closing point, turn the outside pop regulator 








242 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


to the left until the desired waste is obtained. Should it 
work too close, turn regulator to the right for greater 
waste. 

Crane's Patent Locomotive Muffler Pop Safety 
Valve. Fig. 106. This valve is made with the outside 
“pop” regulator conveniently arranged at the top of the 
valve, for quick and easy adjustment, and while the boiler 
is under pressure. 


Table 14. 


Size Valves, inches. 

2% 

2 

3 

Dome Connection, inches. 

2X 




The Kunkle Lock-Up Pop Safety Valve. Fig. 
109. The pressure screw of this valve is made of hard 
tempered brass and can be removed at any time without 
being troubled with rust. The whole of the valve is 
made of brass throughout, with the exception of the 
pressure spring, which is made of the best steel and is 
thoroughly excluded from steam or dampness, making 
every part of the valve adjustable and free from rust. 
The spring is set between two tapered points, as will be 
seen by reference to open view. Another point in its 
favor is the uniform bearing of the valve upon its seat by 
reason of its long ribbed chamber, which guides the 
valve so accurately as not to allow it to cap on one side, 
thereby preventing the steam from cutting away the seat. 

The valve with its regulator can be adjusted to go off 
suddenly without a loud pop or without loss of boiler 
pressure. 










CARE AND OPERATION 


243 


The Kunkle Lock-Up Pop Safety Valve and Muf¬ 
fler Combined. Fig. no. It relieves itself of all 
over-pressure, without raising above what it is set at; 
will close down upon its seat without losing any of the 
desired or fixed pressure, and by means of its lock-up 
device, so ingeniously constructed, all unauthorized per¬ 
sons are prevented from tampering with it. It is pro- 




Fig. 109. Kunkle Pop Valve for 
Portable and Stationary Boilers. 


Fig. 110. The Kunkle Pop 
Valve for Locomotive Boilers. 


vided with a pressure screw with the tapering point rest¬ 
ing in the center of the top plate on top of the spring, 
and is locked with a key, and a jam-nut holding it firmly 
to its place, which makes it perfectly safe from being 
tampered with. 



























244 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


SUPERHEATING STEAM FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

Superheated steam is steam heated to a temperature 
above that due to its pressure. The temperature of steam 
in contact with water depends on the pressure under 
which it is generated, as shown in steam tables, while 
superheated steam is at a higher temperature. 

Steam is superheated by passing through a system of 
pipes or coils that are placed in the smokebox for this 
purpose, and the steam in passing from the boiler to the 
cylinders absorbs the heat from the smoke and gases as 
they are drawn through the flues and stack, thus increas¬ 
ing its temperature. Superheated steam therefore gives a 
higher efficiency of the engine, as there is less loss of 
heat by condensation when it comes in contact with the 
walls of the cylinders. There are many types of super¬ 
heaters, and the usual benefit derived from their use is 
claimed to be about 13 per cent higher efficiency. 

It is surprising that the advantages arising from the 
use of superheated steam should not have led to its ear¬ 
lier use on the locomotive; for it is only during the past 
two or three years that the superheater has begun to 
establish itself in locomotive practice. This development 
we owe chiefly to the Germans, who, with their charac¬ 
teristic thoroughness, are just now paying particular 
attention to the question of locomotive efficiency. The 
advantage of the use of superheated steam is that, by 
preventing cylinder condensation, it renders it possible to 
obtain from a simple locomotive an economy that com¬ 
pares favorably with that of the compound locomotive. 
It also permits of the use of a lower boiler pressure with¬ 
out any appreciable sacrifice of economy. This fact should 


CARE AND OPERATION 


245 


render the superheater particularly attractive to the 
American master mechanic, to whom the high pressures 
which are now common are a source of increasing trouble 
and anxiety. 

The great increase in boiler pressure has been one of 
the striking features in the recent development of the 
American locomotive. The most rapid increase took 
place during the decade 1890 to 1909, when the pressure 
rose from 160 to 200 pounds, to the square inch, several 
roads making use of the latter pressure. During the past 
five years 200 pounds has become common, and on some 
locomotives the pressure has risen to 210 pounds to the 
square inch; indeed, the writer has ridden on one make 
of compound, the needle of whose gauge was maintained 
at over 220 pounds to the square inch. 

The increase in boiler pressure, like the increase in 
heating surface, has been due to the ever present demand 
for greater power; but as far as the gain in power due 
to higher pressure is concerned, it has been secured at 
the cost of several disadvantages, such as increased leak¬ 
age loss, a marked increase in boiler repairs, and a de¬ 
crease of earning capacity due to the greater time spent 
by the locomotive in the repair shop. Now the introduc¬ 
tion of the superheater offers a way of escape from the 
dilemma, a fact which is dwelt upon by Mr. H. H. 
Vaughn in a paper in the proceedings of the Master Me¬ 
chanics’ convention, in which he states that, with the 
proper amount of superheat, it will be possible to return 
to pressures of 175 pounds or even less without loss of 
economy. 

The Toltz Locomotive Superheater is of the smoke flue 
type. The large smoke flues have an inside diameter of 
5" and an outside diameter of 5.25". 


246 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The ends of the large flues in the smoke box are en¬ 
larged to 5^4" outside diameter, and are decreased in the 
flue sheet of the fire-box to 4^6" outside diameter. 

The superheater elements consist of seamless, cold 
drawn steel tubes, 1 1-16" inside diameter, and i}i" out¬ 
side diameter. The tubes are flattened to Y 2 ” by 1 7-16" 
inside diameter, and 13-16" by 1#" outside diameter, and 
are placed in the large smoke box flue to form a square. 

The ends toward the fire-box, where a cast steel return 
bend is used, are left round, also the ends in the smoke 
box, where they are rolled into the large drop forged cast 
steel flanges, or clips, which connect the elements to the 
steam headers. 

There is but one element in each smoke flue, it being 
double looped. The pipe is flattened in order to increase 
the velocity of the steam. Another reason is that, the 
steam flowing in a sheet will be more uniformly super¬ 
heated, than it would be if flowing through a round pipe. 

Another important advantage is, that due to the flat¬ 
tened pipes, the gas section in the smoke flue is consider¬ 
ably enlarged. As mentioned before, the flange or clip, 
into which the superheater elements are rolled like boiler 
flues, are connected with steam headers in pairs by one 
bolt. These flanges, which are either drop forged or cast 
steel, are manufactured solid, and are drilled out for the 
connection of the superheater elements, the front end of 
which is enlarged and threaded to receive a plug. The 
steam headers, which are located in a horizontal position 
midway between two rows of smoke flues, are of a flat 
section. The steam headers for the saturated steam are 
in front, the steam header for superheated steam being 
back, nearest to the front flue sheet. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


247 


As there are four rows of smoke flues, there are con¬ 
sequently two sets of horizontal headers that are con¬ 
nected on each side. 

The whole is supported by brackets connected to the 
shell of the smoke box. The saturated steam enters 
through the dry pipe, on each end of the upper header. 
The dry pipe from the dome is split to give two connec¬ 
tions near the front flue sheet. 

The steam entering the saturated steam headers, will 
flow from there through the superheater elements, into 
the superheated steam chamber, the outlet of which is 
also on each side of the upper header. 

The two superheated steam headers, are also connected, 
in the same manner as the saturated steam headers. From 
there the steam will flow to the throttle, which in this 
case is located in front of the flue sheet, in the smoke 
box. 

The throttle is a double seated poppet valve, actuated 
by a stem which passes through the front flue sheet, 
thence back through the center of the single dry pipe, to 
the cab. 

By this construction there is always steam in the super¬ 
heater elements, and for that reason it will not be neces¬ 
sary to use dampers for the purpose of protecting the 
elements from becoming overheated. 

As an additional protection to the ends of the super¬ 
heater elements near the fire-box, a circulation is created 
by a connection that is made from the casing of the throt¬ 
tle, which is always surrounded by superheated steam. 

This connection is made by a pipe leading back into 
the dome, the top of which is higher than the dry pipe. 

This pipe on top is closed by a valve when the engine 
is working steam, or when the throttle is open. When 


248 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the throttle is closed, the valve on the circulating pipe 
will open, it being actuated by the stem of the throttle. 
In case the steam in the superheater elements becomes 
heated to a very high temperature, it will, owing to its 
lighter specific gravity, flow through the circulating pipe 
into the dome and new saturated steam will be drawn 
through the dry pipe into the superheater elements. At 
the same time, superheated steam is used for the air 
pump and if necessary for heating the train. 

The advantages claimed for this design are: 

First, to eliminate the dampers entirely. Second, on 
account of the flattened construction of the headers, in¬ 
spection of the front flue sheets is not obstructed. Third, 
any of the superheater elements can be drawn out with¬ 
out difficulty. Fourth, there is only one bolt connection 
for two superheater elements. Fifth, a more uniform 
superheat due to the steam flowing in a sheet through 
the flattened superheater pipes. 

The accompanying line drawing, Fig. in, illustrates 
the design of the superheater and shows the boiler of a 
Prairie type locomotive arranged to accommodate the 
superheater. The weight of this locomotive on drivers 
is 151,000 lbs., and the outside diameter of drivers is 
69 ins. Locomotives of the same class using saturated 
steam have cylinders 22 ins. in diameter by 30 ins. stroke, 
and operate under a boiler pressure of 200 lbs. With the 
application of the superheater the diameters of cylinders 
have been increased to 25^ ins. and the boiler pressure 
reduced to 165 lbs. The boilers using saturated steam 
contain 301 tubes 2*4 ins. in diameter by 18 ft. 6 ins. 
long, providing a tube heating surface of 3,278 square 
feet. In the boiler arranged to accommodate the super¬ 
heater 123 ordinary tubes were replaced by 30 tubes 5 


CARE AND OPERATION 


249 



T'ig. HI. Plan, Sections and Elevations of the Toltz Locomotive Superheater. 






































































































































































































































































250 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ins. in diameter. These tubes provide a surface of 600 
square feet, the remaining tubes have 1,935 square feet 
and the heating surface provided by the superheater ele¬ 
ments equals 755 square feet, making a total tube heating 
surface of 3,490 square feet. The grate area in each 
case is 54 square feet, and the fire-box area is 210 square 
feet. Then the locomotive using superheated steam has 
a boiler with a total heating surface of 3,700 square feet, 
as against a total heating surface of 3,488 square feet 
with those using saturated steam. 

The design of the Toltz superheater has been patented 
by Mr. Max Toltz and is handled by the Superheating 
and Engineering Company, 315 German-American Bank 
Building, St. Paul, Minn. 

Concerning the probable success of superheating steam 
in locomotive service, Prof. W. F. M. Goss of Purdue 
University presents the following very sensible con¬ 
clusions : 

Prof. Goss says: “The prediction of Professor Pea¬ 
body, already quoted, to the effect that all superheating 
devices will in the end be discarded, has doubtless been 
generally accepted by the rank and file of American 
engineers. For them the problem has no mysteries. They 
have understood the thermodynamics of the problem. 
They have admitted that the use of superheated steam in 
engines is always attended by a more efficient cylinder 
action, but past experience has taught them that the 
difficulties in maintaining a superheater were too great 
to justify its continued use. They have argued that since 
this was true 30 years ago when steam pressures were 
so low that the temperature of the superheated steam 
was less than that of saturated steam of today, the prob¬ 
lem of superheating is now vastly more difficult than it 


CARE AND OPERATION 


251 


has ever been before. The prevalence of this view in 
this country naturally leads many to question whether 
even Germany's great progress and the more recent but 
equally promising start of the American Locomotive 
Company are as yet sufficient to insure a future for the 
practice. In raising this question it is not intended to 
minimize the value of the elaborate researches of Schmidt, 
Schroter and other German investigators, or of the 
equally valuable experience which has been gained in the 
application of principles. The endeavor has been made 
to make the fact clear that between apparently most 
promising and even masterful experimentation and an 
assured success in practice, a broad gulf is fixed, and that 
the voyage across is not yet finished." 

Turning now from convictions based on previous expe¬ 
rience, and approaching the subject without prejudice, it 
is well, first of all, to recognize the fact that when a prin¬ 
ciple in operation is correct and when it is generally un¬ 
derstood, it is never safe to assume that the means 
whereby it may be utilized will forever fail to be forth¬ 
coming. The reverse is likely to be true. The efforts to 
use superheated steam in the cylinder of an engine are 
based upon correct thermodynamic principles, and hence, 
sooner or later, practice will embrace it. Again, it goes 
without saying, that with the better materials and larger 
experience of today, the problem of producing and utiliz¬ 
ing superheated steam can be approached with greater 
certainty than was possible in the practice of many years 
ago. Proof of this is to be seen in the degree of success 
already achieved. 

“Examining the question broadly, we shall find that 
locomotive service is more favorable to the use of the 
superheater than -any other in which it has been tried 


252 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The installations with which we have hitherto dealt have 
served in stationary or marine practice. The superheater 
of these plants has either been a separate boiler-like de¬ 
vice, in which no water was carried, or has been so com¬ 
bined with the boiler as to always be in close communi¬ 
cation with its furnace. Under these conditions, when 
the engine throttle is closed, the circulation of steam 
within the superheater tubes ceases and the metal of the 
tubes, together with the entrapped steam within them, 
remain exposed to the undiminished intensity of the fur¬ 
nace action. In this manner, the tubes are often heated 
to very high temperatures, a result which when frequently 
repeated leads necessarily to a failure of the superheater. 
Again, when after an interval of inactivity, the engine is 
started, the steam which has been held back within the 
superheater until it has been raised to an enormously 
high temperature, passes on to the engine, oftentimes 
retaining enough of its heat to burn the lubrication and 
sometimes to destroy the rod packings. But all difficul¬ 
ties of this class which to a greater or lesser degree have 
appeared in the operation of every stationary engine 
plant using superheated steam, are doubtless avoided in 
the locomotive, for in this machine, the rate of combus¬ 
tion varies with the volume of steam used. When the 
throttle is open, the fire burns brightly; when it is closed, 
its activity is at once suppressed. When there is no 
steam passing within the tubes of the superheater, the 
gases circulating around the tubes are comparatively low 
in temperature, and when the conditions are so changed 
that the temperature of the gases becomes maximum, the 
volume of steam passing the tubes is greatest. Just as 
the draft of a locomotive responds to the varying de¬ 
mands which are made upon the boiler, so the volume of 


CARE AND OPERATION 


253 


heat which is available for superheating varies with the 
quantity of steam which is to be superheated. The details 
of several of the designs described provide that when the 
blower is on, dampers are closed, which prevent the cir¬ 
culation of gases in the superheater, so that it is only 
when the throttle is open that the superheater does work. 
While it is my opinion that the automatic damper is in 
fact unnecessary, it is certainly true that with it over¬ 
heating of the superheater becomes impossible. In view 
of the highly favorable character of all these conditions, 
it is likely that it will be found easier to maintain a super¬ 
heater on a locomotive than in connection with any other 
type of engine, and, moreover, that superheating in loco¬ 
motive service may be a pronounced success, while in 
other classes of service its future may still be proble¬ 
matical.” 

Efficiency and Power. It may be accepted as beyond 
question that the use of superheated steam will mate¬ 
rially improve the efficiency of the locomotive. The sav¬ 
ing resulting from its use is a two-fold one. For the 
development of a given power, the cylinders of the super¬ 
heating locomotive require less steam, and as the demand 
for steam diminishes, the efficiency of the boiler in¬ 
creases, so that there is not only a saving in steam, but 
a proportionately greater saving in coal. The German 
claim that 25 per cent of the coal burned is saved by the 
use of superheated steam is as a general statement proba¬ 
bly extravagant, but it is not so high as to be impossible. 

Again, while economy in the use of fuel is of great 
importance, it is in many classes of service secondary to 
questions affecting the output of power. Modern condi¬ 
tions impose many restrictions and limitations as to the 
weight and dimensions of a locomotive, while at the same 


254 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


time they call for the development of greater power. It 
is, therefore, important to note that in locomotive service 
anything which improves the efficiency of the machine 
may be utilized to extend its limit of power. The power 
delivered per unit weight of coal burned and also the 
power delivered per unit weight of locomotive, is in¬ 
creased by the use of superheated steam. It appears, 
therefore, that one way in which the power of locomotives 
may be increased is to equip them for superheated steam. 

Obviously, it should not be claimed that full advantage 
is to be had of the increase of economy and of power at 
the same instant. One effect is always sacrificed for the 
other. Under ordinary conditions of running, full ad¬ 
vantage is derived from the improved economy, while in 
an emergency, when the locomotive must be worked at 
its maximum power, then at a temporary sacrifice of effi¬ 
ciency, limit of power may be raised. 

Incidental Considerations. A fact of interest which 
should appear in the use of superheated steam is a decided 
improvement in steam distribution, which, indeed, may 
constitute a factor in the resulting economy. With super¬ 
heated steam, the initial condensation is suppressed and 
the ports are required to pass only that steam which is 
effective in doing work, whereas with saturated steam 
they must pass, in addition to this, that which is repre¬ 
sented by the initial condensation. Assuming port areas 
to be the same, those for a superheating locomotive are 
in effect from 20 to 25 per cent more liberal than for a 
locomotive using saturated steam. In high-speed service 
this becomes a matter of consequence. 

An objection frequently raised against the use of super¬ 
heated steam is to the effect that it increases the difficulty 


CARE AND OPERATION 


255 


in cylinder lubrication. Troubles of this kind have, in 
fact, been common enough in stationary practice, but the 
fact should not be lost sight of that they have followed 
a period when for some reason the superheater has been 
overheated. Under normal conditions, an engine supplied 
with superheated steam has saturated steam in its cylin¬ 
ders, and the maximum temperature of the cylinder walls 
is not higher than when saturated steam is used. 

It has already been shown that there is little danger of 
overheating a locomotive superheater, and consequently 
difficulties with lubrication are not to be found. 

Therefore, to briefly summarize preceding state¬ 
ments, it appears that from an academic point of view, 
the conditions of locomotive service are very favorable 
to the use of superheated steam, that its use makes possi¬ 
ble a better distribution of steam, it greatly improves the 
economic performance of the locomotive and increases 
the capacity of the locomotive for doing work, that the 
maintenance of the superheater is not likely to prove 
serious, nor is any trouble to be expected in securing sat¬ 
isfactory cylinder lubrication; that the adoption of super¬ 
heated steam in locomotive service can probably be 
accomplished without greater difficulty than that which 
attends the introduction of any other important detail 
entering into locomotive construction, and that substan¬ 
tial progress has already been made in the application of 
the principles involved. 

THE SCHENECTADY SUPERHEATER FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

The American Locomotive Co. manufacture a super¬ 
heater for locomotives, which it is claimed does away 
with most of the objectionable features of the older types 


256 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 

















































































































CARE AND OPERATION 


257 


of superheaters, among which might be mentioned, first, 
the use of bent tubes, and, second, the necessity of dis¬ 
mantling the entire superheater in order to get access to 
a single leaky boiler tube. 

Mr. F. J. Cole, the Mechanical Engineer of the Ameri¬ 
can Locomotive Co., is the designer of this superheater, 
which is known as the Schenectady superheater. 

Mr. Cole has introduced several new features, which 
apparently have their merits. 



Chest 

Fig. 113. Schenectady Superheater. 

The first new feature of construction is in the T-pipe, 
the regular conventional T-pipe being replaced by one 
of special design, shown in Figs. 112, 113 and 115; it 
will be. seen that, this T-pipe is subdivided into two com¬ 
partments by a horizontal partition, and that it extends 
nearly across the smokebox; steam entering the T-pipe 
from the dry pipe is admitted to the upper compartment 
only. To the front side of the T-pipe are attached eleven 
header castings, the joint being made with copper wire 
gasket, as in the steam chest practice; each header cast- 







258 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ing is also divided into two compartments, but in this 
case by a vertical partition; five pipes or flues of i 1-16- 
inch outside diameter are inserted through holes (subse¬ 
quently closed by plugs) in the front wall of each header 
casting, these 1 1-16-inch tubes having been expanded 
into special plugs, are firmly screwed into the vertical 
partition wall; these five 1 1-16-inch tubes are inclosed 
by five 1 ^4-inch tubes, which are expanded into the rear 
wall of the header casting in the usual way; each nest of 
two tubes (one 1 1-16-inch and one ij4-inch) is encased 
by a regular 3-inch boiler tube, which is expanded into 


J6"7b back of Flat Sheet 



detail of Back £n«t of Superheater Tufa 

Fig. 114. Schenectady Superheater. 


the front and back tube sheets as usual; the back end of 
each 1 1-16-inch tube is left open; the back end of each 
1 ^4-inch tube is closed; the back ends of the two tubes 
being located at a point about 36" forward from the back 
flue sheet. The detail arrangement and grouping of the 
three flues is shown by Fig. 114. The back end of the 
Ij4" tube is closed by welding, and the tail is formed in 
such a manner as to support this tube in the upper part 
of the 3" tube, thus leaving a clear space below. Fig. 112 
shows that the 1 1-16" tubes are concentric with the 1^4" 
tubes at their ends, but the fact is, the 1 1-16" tube is 
allowed to drop to rest on the bottom of the 1 y A " tube, as 
shown by Fig. 114. 









CARE AND OPERATION 


259 


Steam from the dry pipe enters the upper compartment 
of the T-pipe and thence enters the forward compart¬ 
ments of each of the eleven header castings, thence 
passes back through each of the fifty-five I 1-16" tubes, 
thence forward through the annular spaces between the 
i 1-16" tubes and the i^4" tubes to the rear compart¬ 
ments of each of the eleven header castings, thence into 
the lower compartments of the T-pipe, thence by the right 
and left steam pipes to the cylinders. 



Fig. 115. Fig. 116. 

Schenectady Superheater. 


In passing forward through the ij 4 " tubes, the steam 
is superheated by the smoke box gases, and products of 
combustion passing through the three-inch tubes. 

In this design fifty-five 3" tubes are inserted in the 
upper part of the flue sheets, thus displacing as many of 
the regular small tubes as would occupy the same space. 
Fig. 116 shows the arrangement of flues. 

The arrangement of dampers for protecting the super¬ 
heater tubes from excessive heat when steam is not pass¬ 
ing through is shown in Figs. 112 and 113. That portion 
of the smoke box below the T-pipe, and back of the 











260 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


header casting is completely inclosed by metal plates. 
The lower part of this inclosed box is provided with an 
automatic damper, the action of which is as follows: when 
the throttle is opened, and steam is admitted to the steam 
chests, the piston of the automatic damper cylinder shown 
in Fig. 113 is forced upwards and the damper is held 
open, but when the throttle is closed, the vertical spring 
immediately back of the automatic damper cylinder (and 
concealed by it in Fig. 113), brings the damper to its 
closed position, thus preventing the heat from being 
drawn through the 3" tubes when the engine is not work¬ 
ing steam. There is a slight loss of heating surface, as 
the result of introducing 3" tubes for the purpose of ap¬ 
plying the superheater, but the claim is made that this 
loss is more than offset as regards economical results 
obtained by the superheating process. 

Table 15 gives the loss per cent in heating surface of a 
regular engine, and one of the same dass to which the 
superheater was applied. 


Table 15 . 

Heating Surface. (Sq. Ft.) 


Fire box 

Regular 

engine. 

175.0 

Superheater 

engine. 

175.0 

Loss 
Per cent. 

0.0 

Fire tubes 

3248.1 

2837.0 

12.6 

Arch pipes 

23.0 

23.0 

0.0 

Totals 

3446.1 

3035.0 

11.9 


It will be noted that the application of the superheater 
reduces the heating surface of the fire-box tubes by 
12.6%, and reduces the total heating surface by 11.9%. 




CARE AND OPERATION 


261 


The actual superheating surface is 301 sq. ft., which 
is 10.6% of the fire tube heating surface, and 9.9% of 
the total heating surface of the superheater engine. 

Readings taken from a pyrometer inserted in the left 
steam pipe (see Fig. 113), show that the average tem¬ 
perature is about 517 deg. F., the boiler pressure being 
200 lbs. per sq. in. 

The temperature of saturated steam at 200 lbs. per 
sq. in. is 387 deg. F. which shows a gain of 130 deg. 
accomplished by superheating. 

Service tests made on a superheater locomotive operat- 
ing on the Canadian Pacific Railway, showed a saving 
of 33% in fuel consumption as compared with a simple 
engine of the same class. This was on the ton mile 
basis. 

The saving shown by the superheater engine, when 
compared with a similar compound engine was 16%. 
The piston rod packings are metallic, made of a special 
mixture, having a melting point of 1200 deg. F. 

This is to guard against their being affected by excess 
heat in the cylinder. 

When superheated steam is used, no chances dare be 
taken as regard cylinder lubrication, and forced feed of 
oil is used, instead of the usual gravity feed. 

Although the maximum steam temperature is about 517 
degrees, as stated, yet the constant temperature of the cyl¬ 
inder walls is probably something above the mean of 517 
degrees, and the average temperature (perhaps 230 de¬ 
grees) of the exhaust; it is therefore probable that the 
constant temperature of the cylinder walls, when steam 
is being used, is in the neighborhood of 385 degrees, 
which, however, is considerably higher than the corres- 


262 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ponding temperature would be in the case of an engine 
not equipped with a superheater. 

The particular forced feed lubricator which is used 
in this case is of German make, and embodies four reser¬ 
voirs which are filled with oil before the beginning of 
the run, the oil being forced out of these reservoirs 
through connecting pipes to the cylinders by plungers, 
which receives a gradual but constant downward im¬ 
pulse by a screw motion, which is actuated by a sys¬ 
tem of levers connected with a return crank on one of 
the rear driving wheels; in this case two oil pipes are led 
forward from the lubricator to either side of the engine; 
one of each pair of oil pipes enters the live steam passage 
through the cylinder saddle, and the other is led directly 
into the cylinder at the middle of the stroke. 

Casual consideration of this design might lead to the 
prediction that the upper or 3-inch tubes would be likely 
to choke up in service; but it should be remembered that 
the annular space in the lower part of these 3-inch tubes 
is quite free and unobstructed and can easily be reached 
and scoured by a steam jet from the firebox end. It 
should also be borne in mind that the upper flues in any 
locomotive are not nearly as likely to choke up as are the 
lower flues. 

Injectors. The proper method of feeding water to a 
boiler while in operation under a high pressure, is a 
problem that demands the constant and earnest atten¬ 
tion of the engineer, not only as a matter of personal 
safety, but the efficiency of the boiler depends in a large 
measure upon the manner in which the feed water enters 
the boiler. Theoretically the supply should just equal 
the demand at all times; that is to say, there should be 
a constant ingoing of water into the boiler during all 


CARE AND OPERATION 


263 


the time that the fire is active, and the volume of water 
entering the boiler should exactly equal the volume of 
water that is being evaporated within the boiler. But 
these conditions are hardly possible in practice. Especi¬ 
ally is this so in locomotive practice where the service 
differs so greatly from marine or stationary service. The 
judicious use of the injector on a locomotive is a sub¬ 
ject that engineers and firemen should study to familiar¬ 
ize themselves with. 

The importance of this matter is shown in the follow¬ 
ing extract from the report of a committee of the Travel¬ 
ing Engineers’ Association: “It would hardly cut any 
figure how careful an engineer might be in the handling 
of his train, with the skill he uses in regulating speed or 
in the adjustment of the throttle and the reverse lever, 
if the water was not put into the boiler at the right time 
and the right place. In our experience we have known 
almost remarkable results to be brought about in an en¬ 
gine’s fuel performance by explaining this matter to en¬ 
gineers who perhaps had not given it the thought that 
the subject deserves.” It will be noticed that the com¬ 
mittee emphasizes the importance of “putting the water 
into the boiler at the right time and the right place,” if 
economy in fuel is to be attained, and this certainly is 
a worthy object for every locomotive engineer to have 
in view at all times. 

Now as to the “right time” for putting water into a 
locomotive boiler: A good time to use the injector to 
advantage is while standing at a station. To this end, 
it is the practice of some engineers when approaching 
a stopping point, to allow the water level to drop below 
the normal point, thus utilizing the heat already stored 
in the water that is in the boiler to enable them to get 


264 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


into the station. When the throttle is closed for making 
the stop the injector may be started, and much of the 
heat that would otherwise be wasted at the pop valve 
will be utilized in forcing a new supply of water into the 
boiler. Another “right” time and place to use the in¬ 
jector is just after passing the summit of a long hill, 
when the throttle can be eased off. This will prevent 
the pop from rising so freely on the down grade, and 
thus another source of economy will be taken advantage 
of. There are many other “right” times and places for 
using the injector, that an observant and careful en¬ 
gineer will, by a little thinking, be enabled to figure out 
for himself. Much, of course, depends upon the kind of 
an injector a man has on his engine. If it has a wide 
range of capacities, and can be throttled so as to feed 
a very small jet without breaking, it may be used almost 
continuously, especially if the track is straight, and there 
are not very many heavy grades. The modern injector, 
as it is furnished at the present time by the leading manu¬ 
facturers, approaches very nearly to being a perfect boiler 
feeder for locomotives. Ever since the time of the in¬ 
vention of the injector in 1858 by that eminent French 
engineer Henri Giffard, and its introduction into this 
country in i860 by Wm. Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, 
it has been constantly improved upon, and developed 
by various inventors and manufacturers, and it is to-day, 
without doubt, the most simple, the most economical, 
and the best device for feeding water into locomotive 
boilers. As a short study of the philosophy of the action 
of the injector is not only useful, but should be interest¬ 
ing to engineers and firemen, a space will be devoted to 
this subject. The leading types of injectors and in¬ 
spirators will also be described and illustrated. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


265 


How an Injector Works.* How can an injector lift 
and force large volumes of water into the boiler, against 
the same or even higher pressure than that of the steam ?” 


<» 



“An injector works because the steam imparts suffi¬ 
cient velocity to the water to overcome the pressure of 
the boiler.” 


•Stricland L. Kneass, C. E. t from Sellers’ Hand Book of Injectors. 










266 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


This is a statement of fact; to explain the action, we 
will take up the important parts of the question sep¬ 
arately. 

Why should an injector work? Let us assume that 
the boiler pressure is 180 pounds—that is to say, ever)' 
square inch of the sheets, top and bottom, receives an 
internal pressure of 180 pounds. If the thermometer 
is placed inside, it is found that both the water and the 
steam are at the same temperature, 379 deg. But the 
steam contains more heat than the water, because after 
water is heated, more coal must be burned to break up 
the drops of water to change them into steam; this heat 
is stored in the steam and represents work done by the 
burning of the coal. Steam not only exerts a pressure 
of 180 pounds per square inch, but also can expand eight 
to twenty-six times its original volume, depending upon 
whether it exhausts into the air or into a partial vacuum ; 
water under the same pressure would be discharged in a 
solid jet and without expansion. Either steam or water 
can be used in the cylinder of an engine or to drive the 
vanes of a steam or water turbine, but one pound of 
steam is capable of much more work than one pound- 
weight of water, on account of the heat which has been 
used to change it into steam. This is easily seen by com¬ 
paring the velocities of discharge from a steam nozzle 
and a water nozzle under 180 pounds pressure; steam 
would expand while issuing, reaching at the end of the 
nozzle a velocity of about 3,600 feet per second, while 
the water, having no expansion, would have a velocity 
of only 164 feet per second, about 1/22 of that of the 
steam. The same weight of steam discharging per second 
would therefore have vastly more power for doing work 
than the water jet. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


267 


If a steam or water jet comes in contact with a body 
in front of it, the tendency is to drive the body forward. 
The force which tends to move the body is called “mo¬ 
mentum/’ and is equal to the weight of water or steam 
discharged by the jet in one second, mutiplied by its 
velocity per second. If I pound of both the water and 
the steam are discharged per second, the “momentum” 
of the steam jet is 3,600; because 1 multiplied by 3,600 
=3,600; the momentum of the water jet is 164. If the 
water jet discharged about twenty-two pounds per second, 
its momentum would be the same as that of the steam, 
because 22 multiplied by 164 is nearly 3,600. The two 
jets are discharged under the same pressure, but the 
steam has twenty-two times as much “momentum” or 
force as the water jet; it could, therefore, easily enter a 
boiler at 180 pounds pressure if we could reduce it to 
the size of the hole of the water nozzle. 

How ought an injector to work? Here a practical 
difficulty is reached. A steam jet 6 in. from the noz¬ 
zle is much larger than at the opening, and it would 
appear almost impossible to make it enter a smaller tube. 
Even at the narrowest part of the nozzle it is more than 
sixteen times larger in diameter than a water jet dis¬ 
charging the same weight per second; therefore, if the 
steam is changed to water without reducing its velocity, 
it would pass through a hole one-sixteenth the diameter 
of the “steam nozzle” at a velocity of 3,600 feet per 
second. The simplest and best way to reduce its size 
is to condense it, and to use water for this purpose, es¬ 
pecially as water is needed in the boiler. To condense 
the steam and utilize its velocity, the water must be 
brought into close contact with it, without interfering 
with the discharges one pound per second at 3.600 feet 


268 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


velocity, the momentum of the steam is I multiplied by 
3;6oo, or 3,600. If the vacuum caused by the condensation 
of the steam lifts and draws into the combining tube ten 
pounds of water per second at a velocity of forty feet, 
its momentum is 400; and that of the combined jet is 
3,600 added to 400, or 4,000. The weight of the com¬ 
bined jet is eleven pounds, and at the time of entering 
the delivery tube its velocity ought to be equal to 4,000 
divided by 11, or 366 feet per second; but as the water 
and the steam do not meet in precisely the line of dis¬ 
charge there is a loss of momentum, and the velocity 
in the delivery tube is only 198 feet per second. But 
the jet only needs a velocity of 164 feet to enter the 
boiler or tank carrying 180 pounds pressure, therefore 
the actual jet in the delivery tube is able to overcome a 
pressure of 206 pounds per square inch, or twenty-six 
pounds above that of the steam, because the velocity 
of a jet of water under a head or pressure of 206 pounds 
would be 198 feet per second. This excess is more than 
sufficient to overcome the friction of the delivery piping 
and the resistance of the main check valve. There¬ 
fore: 

“The action of the injector is due to the high velocity 
with which a jet of steam strikes the water entering 
the combining tube, imparting to it its momentum and 
forming with it during condensation a continuous jet 
of smaller diameter, having sufficient velocity to over¬ 
come the pressure of the boiler.” 

The Sellers Improved Self-acting Injector. De¬ 
scription. This injector is simply constructed and con¬ 
tains few operating parts. The lever is used in starting 
only, and the water valve for regulation of the delivery. 
It is self-adjusting, with fixed nozzle, and restarts auto- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


269 


matically. All the valve seats that may need refacing 
can be removed; the body is not subject to wear and 
will last a lifetime. 



Fig. 118. The Self-Acting Injector, Class N Improved P. R. R. 

Standard. 



Fig. 119. The Self-Acting Injector, Class M Improved. 


The action is as follows: Steam from the boiler is 
admitted to the lifting nozzle by drawing the starting 
lever (33) about one inch, without withdrawing the plug 





270 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


on the end of the spindle (7) from the central part of 
the steam nozzle (3). Steam then passes through the 
small diagonal-drilled holes and discharges by the out¬ 
side nozzle, through the upper part of the oombining 
tube (2) and into the overflow chamber, lifts the over¬ 
flow valve (30), and issues from the waste pipe (29). 
When water is lifted the starting lever (33) is drawn 
back, opening the forcing steam nozzle (3), and the full 
supply of steam discharges into the combining tube, 
forcing the water through the delivery tube into the boiler 
pipe. 



Fig. 120. The Self-Acting Injector, Class N Improved. 

P. R. R. Standard. Sellers Standard Form. 


At high steam pressure there is a tendency in all in¬ 
jectors having an overflow to produce a vacuum in the 
chamber (25). In the Improved Self-Acting Injector 
this is utilized to draw an additional supply of water 
into the combining tube by opening the inlet valve (42) ; 
the water is forced by the jet into the boiler, increasing 
the capacity about 20 per cent. 






CARE AND OPERATION 


271 


The water-regulating valve (40) is used only to adjust 
the capacity to suit the needs of the boiler. The range 
is unusually large. 

The cam lever (34) is turned toward the steam pipe 
to prevent the opening of the overflow valve when it is 
desired to use the injector as a heater or to clean the 
strainer. The joint between the body (25) and the waste- 
pipe (29) is not subject to other pressure than that due 
to the discharging steam and water during starting; the 
metal faces should be kept clean and the retaining nut 
(32) screwed up tight. 



Fig. 121. Self-Acting Injector, Class M Improved—Special Form, 
Interchangeable with Monitor, Ohio, Etc. 


To tighten up the gland of the steam spindle, push 
in the starting lever (33) to end of stroke, remove the 
little nut (5) and draw back the lever (33). This frees 
the crosshead (8) and links (15), which can be swung 
out of the way, and the follower (12) tightened on the 
packing to make the gland steam-tight. 

The Improved Self-Acting Injector is specially adapted 
to railroad service, as its efficient, positive action and 








272 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


wide range of capacities at 200 pounds steam render its 
application to high-pressure locomotive boilers very ad¬ 
vantageous. It will work from the highest steam pres¬ 
sures used on locomotives down to 35 pounds steam with¬ 
out adjustment and without wasting at the overflow, and 
by regulating the water-supply valve on the injector it 
can be operated at 15 pounds. As it restarts instantly 
under all conditions of service, it can always be depended 
upon to force all the water into the boiler, so that the 
engineer can give his whole attention to his other du¬ 
ties. 



Fig. 122. Self-Acting Injector, Class P, Special 10'% and 11% Only. 

Sizes of Injectors for Locomotives.* In determining 
the size of injector required for locomotives, the size 
of the cylinder is usually taken as the standard, although 
the diameter of the boiler and the kind of service for 
which the locomotive is intended has a modifying influ¬ 
ence. 


*From “Practice and Theory of the Injector,” Wiley & Sons, New York. 










CAKE AND OPERATION 


273 


TABLE 16. 


Diam. of 
Cyl., 
inches 

Size of 
Injector 

Diam. 
of Cyl., 
inches 

Size of 
Injector 

Diam. 
of Cyl., 
inches 

Size of 
Injector 

Diam. 
of Cyl., 
inches 

Size of 
Injector 

9 

4ft 

13 

5ft 

j 17 

7* 

21 

9*t 

10 

4ft 

14 

6* 

1 18 

8* 

22 

10* 

11 

5ft 

15 

6* 

19 

8*t 

23 

10* 

12 

5ft 

16 

7* 

20 

9* 

24 

11* 







25 

11* 







26 

12ft 


t Use next size larger with specially large boiler. 


TABLE 17. 

Improved Self-Acting Injector 
Maximum and Minimum Capacities, All Classes 
G allons per Hour—5 Feet Lift. ( 7 % Gallons = 1 Cubic Foot.) 



CO Lbs. Steam 

120 Lbs. Steam 

180 Lbs. Steam 

200 Lbs. Steam 

OlZ6 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

J4ft~ 

427 

158 

562 

208 

517 

345 

500 

350 

5ft 

667 

247 

907 

340 

1027 

395 

1035 

455 

6* 

967 

358 

1320 

4S9 

1492 

568 

1516 

667 

7* 

1290 

477 

1755 

650 

1987 

757 

2010 

885 

8* 

1657 

613 

2257 

835 

2550 

970 

2587 

1138 

9* 

2070 

766 

2820 

1044 

3150 

1197 

3187 

1402 

10* 

2535 

938 

3450 

1280 

3900 

1482 

3952 

1740 

11* 

3037 

1124 

4132 

1530 

4672 

1775 

4725 

2079 

12ft 

3650 

1351 

4968 

1847 

5616 

2134 

5700 

2450 


$ Class N. Imp. not made 4i* a size; only supplied in Classes L, M, and N. 


Things to be Remembered. With Locomotives 
Carrying High Steam.Pressure (1801:0 225 Pounds). 
Set the injector just above the top water level of the 
tank. At 8 feet lift, 200 pounds, the capacity is about 10 
per cent less than the list. 

Cold water is best for the injector. Hot water reduces 
the life and efficiency. At 120 deg. the capacity is about 




















































274 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


one-third below list given in the table. The range of 
capacities is reduced and no injector lifts as promptly. 

Use large suction pipe and tank valve connections. If 
the diameter is increased one size, the gain in capacity 
is from 5 to 10 per cent. 

Use large strainer with small holes. Small strainers 
require frequent cleaning. If the holes are large, cin¬ 
ders and coal pass through and wear the tubes. If the 
strainer is too small, the injector does not give full ca¬ 
pacity. Be sure that the gasket between hose and suction 
pipe is not squeezed so as to close opening. 

Suction pipe must be absolutely tight. Any leak of 
air reduces the capacity and makes the overflow valve 
jump. 



Fig. 123. Locomotive Feed-Water Strainer for Right-or Left-Hand 
Side of Engine. 

Delivery pipe and main check valve must be of ample 
area. If an injector gives high back pressure, it is using 
too much steam. If the delivery opening is too small, 
the power of the injector is wasted in increased friction 
in the pipes. 

Take good care of the injector. Keep all glands steam- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


275 


tight, and watch carefully for leaks in the suction pipe. 
Do not force the steam valve hard against its seat; close 
the valve gently. Start the injector in the same way; 
at very high pressure the delivery pipe is liable to burst 
if the lever starting valve is jerked open. Keep the in¬ 
jector clean and report at once if not working properly. 
Do not run with the water-regulating valve wide open 
all the time. 


List of Parts, Self-Acting Injector, 


Class N Improved 


Delivery Tube. 
Combining Tube. 
Steam Nozzle. 

Spindle Nut. 

Steam Stuffing Box. 
Spindle. 

Cross-Head. 

10. Water Stuffing Box. 

11. Follower. 

12. Packing Ring. 

13. Lock Nut. 

14. Follower for No. 10. 
Links. 

Packing Ring. 

{ Rings for 
Copper 
Pipe. 

Check Valve. 

Guide for No. 20. 


15 . 

16. 

19. 

19a 


Plain. 

, Reduc. 


20. 

22. 

23- 

23a. 


Plain fUnions for 
Reduc. llron Pipes. 


24. Coupling Nuts. 

25. Injector Body. 

27. Wrench. 

29. Waste Pipe. 

30. Waste Valve. 

31. Waste Valve Cam. 

32. Jam Nut for No. 29. 

33. Starting Lever. 

34. Cam Lever. 

35. Pin, Nos. 38 and 33. 

36. Cam Shaft. 

37. Washer on 36. 

38. Collar and Index. 

39. Funnel. 

40. Plug Water Valve. 

41. Regulating Handle. 

42. Inlet Valve. 

57. Closed Overflow 
Connection. 


276 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


List of Parts, Self-Acting Injector, 
Class M Improved 


1. Delivery Tube. 

2. Combining Tube. 

3. Steam Nozzles. 

5. Spindle Nut. 

6. Steam Stuffing Box. 

7. Spindle. 

8. Cross-Head. 

10. Water Stuffing Box. 

11. Follower. 

12. Packing Ring. 

13. Lock Nut. 

14. Follower for No. 10. 

15. Links. 

16. Packing Ring. 

19. Plain [ Rin S s for 

i 9 a. Reduc. C °PP er 
[Pipe. 

20. Check Valve. 

22. Guide for No. 20. 

23. Plain JUnions for 
23a. Reduc. [Iron Pipes. 

24. Coupling Nut. 

25. Injector Body. 


27. Wrench. 

29. Waste Pipe. 

30. Waste Valve. 

31. Guide for No. 30. 

32. Jam Nut for 31. 

33. Starting Lever. 

34. Cam Lever. 

35. Pin, Nos. 38 and 33. 

36. Pin through 31 and 34. 

38. Collar and Index. 

39. Funnel. 

40. Plug Water Valve. 

41. Regulating Handle. 

42. Inlet Valve. 

57. Closed Overflow 
Connection. 

73. Guide for Overflow 

Valve 75. 

74. Heater Stem. 

75. Overflow Valve. 

76. Follower. 

77. Pack Ring in 73. 

78. Heater Lever. 


The Sellers' Self-Acting Injector. Class P— 
Sizes 10^2 and 11J2. This is a special form of body, de¬ 
signed to be applied to the back-head of the locomotive 
boiler, with the starting lever and water regulating valve 
placed directly over the brake valve and within con¬ 
venient reach when the engineer is seated. The coup- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


277 


ling nuts and sizes of the pipe are Pennsylvania Railroad 
(Sellers’) Standard, but the branches are located so as 
to avoid the fire-door and boiler attachments. 

HINTS TO BE READ BEFORE CONNECTING THE INJECTOR. 

1. Blow out all pipes carefully with steam before at¬ 
taching the injector, tapping the pipe with a hammer in 
order to loosen all the scale. 

2. When drip pipe is attached close to overflow of in¬ 
jector, it must be same size as given in table. 




MAIN 

CHECK 

VALVE 


ANGLE VALVE 
AND DRY PIPE 


RELIEF 


PLUG 


Fig. 124. Combined Stop and Main Check Valve ; by Closing the Stop 
Valve, the Check Valve and Seat Can Ee Removed Without 
Blowing Off Boiler. Screw or Flanged. 


3. Always use a dry pipe attachment to insure perfectly 
dry steam. 

4. The diameter of the strainer should be large enough 
to give an ample supply of water even when some of the 
holes are choked. 


















278 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


5. Keep all valves steam-tight; all leaks tend to in¬ 
crease rapidly, owing to the velocity with which steam 
passes through the smallest opening. 

6. Keep the steam pipe and chamber free from dirt 
and chips from the threads on the pipes, and the steam 
nozzles perfectly clean. The steam nozzle is the life 
of an injector, and should be maintained in best con¬ 
dition. If the injector is new and the lifting nozzle 
should fill up, remove from body as described. 

7. When grinding the steam valve, place a rubber 
washer over the holes leading to the lifting nozzle to 
prevent the sand from working into the lifting jet; this 
washer should, of course, be provided with a hole large 
enough to admit the plug on the end of the spindle; then 
screw the steam stuffing box rather tightly against its 
shoulder to insure its proper alignment. Keep the steam 
valve perfectly tight. 

8. To remove lime and scale, immerse the tubes or 
the whole injector in a bath composed of cen parts of 
water to one part muriatic acid. Remove as soon as 
scale is dissolved. 

Emergency Methods of handling the improved self¬ 
acting injector (Locomotive Firemen’s Magazine). The 
improved self-acting injector in good working order is 
the most satisfactory boiler feeder that can be used, and 
fully deserves the confidence placed in it by careful en- 
ginemen. But there are times when even the best in¬ 
jector refuses to work. It may not be the fault of the 
injector itself; in fact, it seldom is to blame. Sometimes 
the trouble is due to careless handling, to the leaky con¬ 
dition of the steam valves, joints of the suction pipe and 
hose coupling; to cinders and dirt in the tank; and under 
such conditions many an injector is struggling, which 


CARE AND OPERATION 


279 


not only reduces the efficiency and length of service, 
but finally prevents it from delivering water to the boiler. 

It is of course difficult to do much in the way of repair 
to an injector when out on the road; even the pipe¬ 
coupling wrench is apt to be missing, and few tool boxes 
have wrenches for the removal of the tubes. A special 
feature of the self-acting injector is that the combining 
and delivery tubes can be removed with ordinary tools, 
but when it is necessary to take an injector apart the 
leakage from the steam and main check valves makes 
the work very disagreeable; but when an injector does 
not work it is something more than aggravating, it is 
often serious, especially if the left-hand injector has not 
been used for some time and also refuses to start. Then 
is the time for quick thinking and quick acting. 

Suppose that an injector suddenly stops working. 
Probably the tubes, hose, suction pipe or strainer are 
stopped up. The last two can probably be cleared out 
by closing the cam over the overflow valve and draw¬ 
ing the starting lever quickly; if the hose lining has 
become loose it will let the steam flow back and close 
up again as soon as the injector is started, disabling 
this injector until a short nipple or coiled wire can be 
forced up the hose or a new hose obtained. If the next 
station cannot be reached before water is needed the left- 
hand injector must be made to work, unless the train is 
stopped and the injector and pipes thoroughly examined. 
Treat the left-hand injector exactly as the right. Open 
the tank valve and draw the injector starting lever; if 
the water is lifted, but will not enter the boiler, set the 
lazy cock at half capacity and tap the main check valve 
on cap with hammer to loosen it in its guide; at half 
capacity, because at that point the injector gives a higher 


280 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


back pressure than with the lazy cock wide open. This 
will probably be effective. 

To Remove Tubes. The sectional views show very 
clearly how the tubes are held in the body. Uncouple 
the feed pipe from the injector and swing it out of the 
way; place a monkey wrench on the guide (22) for the 
line check (20) and unscrew; in some of the older pat¬ 
terns of injector it may be necessary to insert an old 
file or flat piece of iron, or perhaps two pieces in op¬ 
posite openings; at any rate, it can be removed quite 
easily unless the seats are heavily lined up. This draws 
out the combining (2) and delivery (3) tubes, which 
can be separated and carefully examined inside; here is 
where the trouble will usually be found, and the im¬ 
pediment must be taken out without bruising the surface 
or bending the tubes. When the parts are replaced, test 
before recoupling the feed pipe. No steam should issue 
from suction branch. 

Frequently the cause of stoppage is the absence of a 
strainer in the tank or suction pipe, or due to the fact 
that the holes in the straining plate are too large. An 
admirable arrangement of fixed strainer is shown in Fig. 
123 placed between the hose and the suction pipe. 

Suppose that steam nozzles (piece 3) require cleaning. 
Stoppage of the lifting tube is usually gradual and is 
shown by a slow falling off in the working of the in¬ 
jector. These tubes are more difficult to remove unless 
a wrench to fit the hexagon is at hand. Sometimes a 
large iron chip or heavy piece of scale is carried into 
the nozzle (piece 3) by the steam, due to carelessness 
when cleaning the boiler, but this is of infrequent occur¬ 
rence. If this happens it is better to make running re- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


281 


pairs to the other injector and leave it for the men in 
special charge of injector repairs. 

At times the main check valve does not seat and all 
efforts to close it prove unavailing; if the line check 
valve has been omitted during repair, the water from 
the boiler rushes back into the injector. With injectors 
having no lazy cock, the only method of preventing the 
burning of the crown sheet is to draw the fires; but with 
the self-acting close the overflow valve by means of the 
cam, then quickly shut the lazy cock. The check pipe 
and injector body will then carry full boiler pressure 
until the roundhouse is reached, when the fire can be 
drawn and the pressure blown off. 

Leakage of air into the suction pipe is usually the cause 
for unsatisfactory working of the injector. Enginemen 
should be especially careful about this and always tighten 
the joints so that no air can enter; even a slight drip 
from any of the joints under the pressure of the water 
in the tank indicates a large enough opening to admit 
sufficient air to affect the working of the injector, es¬ 
pecially when the water level in the tank is low. Another 
point is the tightness with which the cover of the man¬ 
hole of the tank fits on its seat; if air does not enter 
freely upon the top of the water the capacity of the in¬ 
jector will be reduced, the effect being more marked at 
high steam pressures and long lift than under ordinary 
conditions. 

Lime and salts contained in the supply water coat the 
surfaces of the tubes; the accumulation occurs slowly, 
destroying the restarting feature, the promptness of lift¬ 
ing, and reduces the capacity; this should be at once re¬ 
ported to the proper authorities. 


282 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Inlet Valve (42). When the improved injector is 
feeding, the overflow chamber—the part of the body be¬ 
tween the water branch and the waste pipe—is filled with 



cold water; if it does not feel cold to the hand the inlet 
valve (42) is not open and working properly. This 
method of surrounding the tubes with cold water tends 
to prevent the formation of scale, and this pattern of 










CARE AND OPERATION 


283 


injector gives longer service in districts where the supply 
water contains lime than those that do not contain this 
feature. Crude oil introduced into the steam or water 
pipe softens the scale and is often helpful. Bosses on 
both the water and the steam branches may be tapped 
for self-feeding oil cups, but all the joints should be 
tight. 

Maintain the injector in good working order. 

The Metropolitan “1898” Locomotive Injector, 
Figs. 125 and 126, is a double-tube injector, composed of 
a lifting set of tubes which lifts the water and delivers it 
tc the forcing set of tubes under pressure, which in turn 
forces the water into the boiler. 

The lifting set of tubes acts as a governor to the forc¬ 
ing tubes, delivering the proper amount of water re¬ 
quired for the condensation of the steam, thus enabling 
the injector to work without any adjustment under a 
great range of steam pressure, handle very hot water and 
admit of the capacity being regulated for light or heavy 
service under all conditions. 

This injector will start with 30 to 35 lbs. steam pres¬ 
sure, and without any adjustment of any kind will work 
at all steam pressures up to 300 lbs. In fact, at all steam 
pressures and under all conditions its operation is the 
same. When working, all the water must be forced 
into the boiler. It is impossible for part or all the water 
to waste at the overflow should the steam pressure vary. 

The injector is easily handled. The lever works very 
freely and can be handled without care, for there is 
no sensitiveness whatever in starting, as is the case with 
most injectors; consequently any one can operate it. 

Regulation of capacity is an important, in fact indis¬ 
pensable feature of the perfect locomotive injector. With 


284 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



Metropolitan “1898” locomotive injectors the capacity 
can be regulated for light or heavy service under all 
steam pressures and with hot as well as with cold feed 
water. While most injectors will admit of the capacity 


Fig. 126. Metropolitan “1898” Injector, Sectional View. 































CARE AND OPERATION 


285 


being regulated with low steam pressures and cold feed 
water, this injector is the first that admits of a success¬ 
ful regulation with steam pressures up to and above 250 
lbs. and with the feed water heated. 

Model H Metropolitan “1898” locomotive injectors 
will interchange and fit the Monitor coupling connec¬ 
tions. Model H injectors, sizes 5 an( I 6, have same size 
body and interchange. Sizes 8 and 9 'have same size body 
and interchange. Sizes 11 and 12 have same size body 
and interchange. 

The Model H and Model I types of these injectors 
differ solely in the pipe connections and the form of the 
main casing or shell. All the parts for each are the same 
for corresponding sizes. 

Model I Metropolitan “1898” locomotive injectors will 
interchange and fit the Sellers coupling connections. 
Model I injectors, sizes 6 and 7, have the same size body 
and interchange. 

The Metropolitan locomotive injector is manufactured 
by the Hayden and Derby Manufacturing Company of 
New York, who furnish the following directions for con¬ 
necting and operating it. 

Pipe Connections . The injector should be located in¬ 
side the cab, so that it can be conveniently handled by 
the engineer.. It should be located with the overflow 
nozzle about 4 in. above the top of the tank. It is neces¬ 
sary that the steam pipe and the openings in the main 
steam valve should be as large or larger than the inside 
diameter of the sizes of copper pipe given in the list 
below, so that the injector will receive a full supply of 
dry steam. The openings in the goose neck and tank 
valve should not be smaller than the size of suction pipe 
called for in the list below. 


286 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


TABLE 18. 



Capacity per Hour 

ripe Connections 

Size 

Steam Pressures 

Steam 

Suction 

Delivery 

Overflow 


160 Pounds 

210 Pounds 

Iron 

Copper 

Iron 

Copper 

Iron 

Copper 

Iron 

Copper 

5 

1180 gals. 

1210 gals. 

1 X 

IX 

IX 

IX 

IX 

IX 

IX 

IX 

6 

1605 gals. 

1647 gals. 

VX 

IX 

IX 

IX 

vx 

IX 

VX 

IX 

7 

2095 gals. 

2151 gals. 

IX 

IX 

IX 

IX 

IX 

IX 

IX 

IX 

8 

2651 gals. 

2723 gals. 

2 

2 

2 

2X 

2 

2 

IX 

IX 

9 

2954 gals. 

3034 gals. 

2 

2 

2 

2X 

2 

2 

IX 

IX 

*X 

3274 gals. 

3362 gals. 

2 

2 

2 

2X 

2 

2 

ix 

IX 

10 

3961 gals. 

4068 gals. 

2 

2X 

2X 

2X 

2 

2X 

ix 

ix 

11 

4215 gals. 

4450 gals. 

2 

2X 

2X 

2X 

2 

2X 

IX 

IX 


Operation. To start the Metropolitan “1898” loco¬ 
motive injector, the lever, part 292, Fig. 126, is drawn 
hack, lifting the auxiliary steam valve, part 213, from 
its seat. This allows steam to flow through the lifting 
steam jet, part 224, into the lifting combining tube, part 
225, thereby creating a vacuum in the suction chamber, 
causing the water to flow through the lifting combin¬ 
ing tube, part 225, condensing the steam, then out 
through the overflow valve, part 215, and through the 
final overflow valve, part 234, through the overflow pipe 
to the atmosphere. A further movement of lever, part 
292, closes the final overthrow valve thereby turning the 
water from the overflow into the boiler, thus opening 
the check valve, part 210. When the injector is work¬ 
ing, the overflow valve is closed and held to its seat by 
pressure equal to the boiler pressure. 

The capacity of the Metropolitan “1898” locomotive 
injector is regulated by increasing or decreasing the 
amount of steam to the lifting steam jet, part 224, by 
means of the regulating valve, part 301. When this 


















CARE AND OPERATION 


287 


valve is wide open, the lifting steam jet, part 224, re¬ 
ceives a full amount of steam, which enables the lifting 
apparatus of the injector to lift the greatest quantity 
of water and deliver it to the forcing apparatus. When 
this regulating valve, part 301, is partially closed, it will 
partially close the opening into the lifting steam jet, 
part 224, decreasing the flow of steam, which will de¬ 
crease the amount of water lifted by the lifting appara¬ 
tus. This arrangement has been found to be far better 
than the old method of throttling the water supply. It 
enables the injector to run steadier when working at its 
minimum capacity and also enables the capacity to be re¬ 
duced more. 

To use the injector as a heater, lift the side links, part 
286, by means of the small handle on same, and pull the 
links back until the pin, part 287, drops into the notch. 
This operation causes the final overflow to be closed and 
a small amount of steam can be admitted, enough to heat 
the injector. When it is desired to operate the injector 
after using it as a heater, the lever is simply pushed in, 
which will place the injector in positon to be operated. 

If the injector breaks or will not start promptly, see 
if there is a leak in the suction connection. If the open¬ 
ings into the tank are too small, or the hose strainer 
clogged, or the hose kinked, or the hose lining is collapsed, 
the injector will not get a sufficient supply of water. If 
the injector will lift the water but will not deliver it 
into the boiler, see that the intermediate or line check 
valve, or the main boiler check valve are in proper work¬ 
ing order, also examine the suction pipe for leaks. A 
leak in the suction pipe, while it may not prevent the in¬ 
jector from lifting, will prevent the water being forced 
into the boiler. If the main steam pipe or the main steam 


288 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


valve are not of sufficient size, or if there is a leak in the 
dry pipe, the injector will not receive a supply of steam 
sufficient to force the water into the boiler. If the over¬ 
flow pipe is smaller than the overflow nozzle, there will 
be a back pressure, which will prevent the injector from 
lifting the water promptly. The overflow nozzle and 
overflow pipe should be kept free from lime or scale. 
This is very important. 

Repairing. When the tubes become worn they should 
be renewed. The forcing tubes are removed by removing 
the check valve casing, part 211, by breaking the flanged 
joint. The lifting tubes are removed by removing the 
regulating center piece, part 302. Should the steam valves 
leak they should be re-ground. Overflow valve, part 215, 
must seat tightly. If this valve leaks, it will cause the hot 
water from the delivery chamber of the injector to be 
forced into the intermediate chamber and drawn into the 
combining tube, part 208, causing the injector to break. 
This is very important. 

The final overflow valve has a soft disk, part 249. This 
disk is made soft so that in case the valve should close 
on to any hard substance, it will not injure the valve 
seat. These disks can be removed very easily and are 
very inexpensive. 

Swing Intermediate or Line Check Valves (Han¬ 
cock Pattern, Fig. 127). These check valves can be ap¬ 
plied to any locomotive injector. 

There are no wings or guides to become incrusted 
with scale or deposit while the valve is open, which 
would prevent its closing, and the liability therefore of 
damage or delay caused by the valve failing to close is 
obviated. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


289 


The Monitor Injector. (Figs. 128-129, made by 
the Nathan Manufacturing Co., New York.) The proper 
position of this injector is in the cab above the level of 
the water in tender, convenient to engineer. Should the 
Monitor have to be placed outside, it must be provided 
with connecting rods extending into the cab. Steam 
should be taken from dome or highest part of boiler to 
insure best effects. 



Fig. 127. Swing Intermediate Check Valves, Exterior View. 

Its Range. It does not waste water at overflow by 
ordinary variation of working steam pressure, but steadily 
performs its duty, whether the water-valve is wide open 
or throttled down until almost shut. 

Steadiness. It works steadily, whether the engine is 
running fast or slow; while reversing, applying brakes, 
and during ordinary stoppages. It is also capable of 
running heavy as well as light trains, the quantity of 
water needed being easily regulated by the water-valve 
attached. 

Reliability. It is provided with an independent lifting 
jet, which enables the injector to start promptly at all 
times. This is a peculiar feature and very important, be¬ 
cause it allows the injector to start as promptly after 
doing its duty as a heater cock, as at first. 




290 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Flanged Monitors. Since 1885 the body of the Moni¬ 
tor has been divided into two parts, which are firmly 
held together by a double flange securely bolted. This 



very convenient arrangement enables the interior parts 
to be taken out readily, for cleaning or renewal, when 
necessary, without injury to the injector. 

Recent Improvements. The steam valve spindle is pro¬ 
vided with an improved patent yoke stuffing box, which 




























CARE AND OPERATION 


291 


makes it possible to place the threaded part of the spindle 
outside the steam chamber, diminishing its wear. The 
packing can be adjusted and tightened by means of a 
large central nut, still preserving the simplicity and con¬ 
venience of an ordinary stuffing box. 



The water valve has been provided with a double han¬ 
dle with index pin, which engages with notches, cut into 

























292 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the stuffing box cap, thereby keeping the water valve 
steady in any position against any jar or vibration of the 
engine. 



Description of ’88 Monitor, Fig. 130. This injector 
is a modification of the well-known locomotive injector 
of that name, and is designed to supply the demand for 


Fig. 130. No. 88 “Monitor”—Interior View. 

























CARE AND OPERATION 


293 


a lever-handled injector, and embody in a new combina¬ 
tion all the best qualities of the former instrument. The 
most prominent feature of the ’88 Monitor is the facility 
with which it can be started and stopped by the new lever- 
handle attachment, or the single screw spindle motion, 
whichever may be preferred. The quantity of water 
which the new injector is capable of throwing, will com¬ 
mand attention, and the range of its capacity, running 
as it does from ioo per cent at maximum to less than 50 
per cent at minimum, makes it equally applicable to the 
moving of heavy or light trains, as the case may happen. 

It will lift the feed-water 5 ft. at 30 lbs. pressure, and 
at standard working pressure, to a height not likely to 
arise in ordinary locomotive practice. 

Its pipe connections are the same as the other Monitors 
and interchangeable therewith, so that in the use of the 
new instrument, the old fittings, if they are good* need 
not be disturbed. 

The construction of the starting arrangements is such 
that the screw attachment can be readily substituted for 
the lever-handle, should the former method be preferred. 

Directions for Application. Place the injector 
above water level in tender. Take steam from dome, or 
highest part of boiler, through dry pipe. This will insure 
the best effects. 

Instructions to Operate the Injector. With 
Lever Motion. To start: Pull out the lever a short dis¬ 
tance to lift the water; when water runs from the over¬ 
flow, steadily draw back the lever until overflow ceases. 
Do not increase the steam supply after overflow has 
ceased. 

Regulate for quantity with water-valve W. 

To stop: Push in the lever. 


294 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


With Screw Motion. To start: Open the steam valve 
one-quarter of a turn to lift the water. When water runs 
from the overflow, open steam valve until overflow ceases. 
Do not increase the steam supply after overflow has 
ceased. 

Regulate for quantity with water-valve W. 

To stop: Close steam valve. 

Note i. To grade injector: Throttle water by valve 
W; if this is not sufficient, reduce the steam by pushing 
in lever handle about half-way, and in case of the screw 
motion, by screwing in the steam spindle about half-way. 

2. To use as a heater: Close valve H and pull out 
lever all the way, and in case of screw motion open valve 
full. At all other times valve H must be kept open. 

3. The heater cock can be worked from the cab by 
means of arm A, adapted for the attachment of an ex¬ 
tension rod. Arm A is held on the heater cock spindle 
by friction, and by loosening cap C it can be set at any 
angle to suit the most convenient position for the ex¬ 
tension rod. 

4. The hole in the top knob K of water handle W in¬ 
dicates the position of the water valve. One turn of the 
handle fully opens, or entirely closes, the water passage. 

In either case, the knob with the hole in should be in 
an upright position. Intermediate positions of the knob 
K indicate corresponding openings in the water passage. 

The Little Giant Locomotive Injectors, Fig. 131, 
made by the Rue Manufacturing Co., Philadelphia, have 
been on the market for many years. This injector is 
simple in construction, and is not liable to get out of 
order. 

These injectors are fitted with a movable combining 
tube, operated by a lever which allows them to be ad- 


CARE AND OPERATION 


295 


justed to work correctly at different pressures of steam, 
and under the many conditions which injectors are re¬ 
quired to work. 


TABLE 19—Size and Capacity 


Size of 
Injector 

Copper Pipe 
Outside 

Iron Pipe 
Inside 

Gallons of 
Water 
per hour 

Steam 

Water & 
Delivery 

Steam 

Water & 
Delivery 

4 

l 

l 

f 

f 

600 

5 

1* 

n 

1 

1 

950 

6 

If 

if 

If 

If 

1275 

7 

If 

if 

H 

If 

1800 

8 

If 

if 

If 

If 

2250 

9 


if 

If 

If 

2800 

10 

If 

2f 

If 

2 

3500 



Fig. 131. 

To Operate. Have the combining tube in position to 
allow a sufficient quantity of water to condense the 
steam when the starting valve is full open, then open 
the starting valve slightly; when water shows at over- 













296 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


flow, open full. Regulate the water by moving the com¬ 
bining tube. To use as a heater, close overflow by mov¬ 
ing the combining tube up against the discharge, then 
open starting valve enough to admit the quantity of steam 
required. 



The Simplex Locomotive Injector, Fig. 132, has 
been designed to meet the severe requirements of modern 


Pig. 132. The Simplex Injector. 

















CARE AND OPERATION 


297 


locomotive practice, especially where it is desired that the 
instrument be self-adjusting and re-starting. 

Attention is called to the largely increased delivering 
capacities at the high steam pressure of ocomotive en¬ 
gines of to-day. 

This injector is of the “re-starting” type, and if the 
water supply should happen to be temporarily inter¬ 
rupted, the instrument will start again without any ma¬ 
nipulation, just as soon as the water supply is again within 
reach. The instrument is also “self-regulating” and re¬ 
quires no water valve regulation above 50 lbs. steam 
pressure, to prevent spilling at the overflow. Its lifting 
qualities are of the highest order, and it may be relied 
upon to start promptly after doing duty as a heater. 

The throttling capacity is fully 50 per cent of the 
maximum capacity under ordinary variations of lift and 
of feed water temperature. 

If it is desired that the instrument be placed outside 
the engine cab, and operated by means of extension rods, 
a quick motion screw attachment can be readily substi¬ 
tuted in the place of the lever handle. 

The construction of the injector is such that all its in¬ 
terior nozzles and other component parts are easily ac¬ 
cessible for examination and repairs. 

Method of Operating. To start: Pull out the lever. 

To stop: Push in the lever. 

Regulate for quantity by means of the water valve. 

To use as heater for the feed water: Close heater cock 
and draw out the lever. 

In starting on high lifts and in lifting hot water, pull 
the lever out slowly. 

In case a pipe is attached to the overflow, its inside 


298 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


diameter must under no circumstances be less than the 
inside diameter of the overflow nozzle. 

If the water inlet valve (part 19 of details) should 
leak and prevent the prompt lifting of the feed water, it 
will only be necessary to turn around key 35, so that the 
letter “S” (not shown on cut) on the square spindle-end 
will be “up” This will close passage “P,” and permit 
the continued use of the instrument until valve 19 can be 
repaired. 

The Simplex injector is made by the Nathan Mfg. Co. 
of New York, who furnish the following table of capac¬ 
ities. 


TABLE 20. 



Capacity in 

Inside Diameter of 

Outside Diameter of 

Size 

Gallons p’r Hour 

Iron Pipes, in Inches 

Copper Pipe, in Inches 


125 lbs. 

200 lbs. 

Steam 

Suction 

Delivery 

Steam 

Suction 

Delivery 

5 

990 

1140 

U 

H 

U 

li 

11 

11 

6 

1260 

1440 

H 

U 

H 


11 

11 

7 

1830 

1950 

11 

H 

11 

if 

If 

If 

8 

2280 

2580 

li 

2 

2 

if 

2 

2 

9 

2880 

3240 

h 

2 

2 

if 

2 f 

2 

10 

3450 

3800 

2 

2 

2 

21 

21 

21 


Lunkenheimer ’99 Model Standard Injector. 
Figs. 133-134. This injector embodies in its construction 
all desirable features which tend to make an injector high 
grade and efficient. Under high steam pressures it is 
necessary to have a machine which can be operated as 
efficiently as under low pressures, and one which admits 
of sufficient range of work to cover all conditions of 
service. 

The construction is simple, manipulation easy, and the 



















CARE AND OPERATION 


299 


results attained show a high degree of efficiency. It can 
be started promptly, under most conditions, at all pres¬ 
sures from 30 to 250 lbs., and can be handled without fear 
of uncertainty of action, as it is not sensitive in this re¬ 
spect. It will work without adjustment of steam or water 
from 40 to 250 lbs. and higher, and the capacity can be 
reduced over 50 per cent at all points. This feature 
makes it especially suitable for severe service, such as is 
found on railroads, steamboats and high-pressure power 
plants, and in other places where the load varies and it 
is necessary to have an injector in which the capacity can 
be reduced within wide limits. 



Fig. 133. Lunkenheimer ’99 Model Standard Injector. 


The design of the machine is excellent, the parts are 
well proportioned, the operating mechanism which con¬ 
trols the steam and overflow valves is not complicated and 
is all contained within the body of the injector, and there 
are no outside connecting rods, usually found in machines 
of this class. 


Section on unc A* A 


300 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



Fig. 134. Lunkenheimer '99 Model Standard Injector—Sectional View. 



































CARE AND OPERATION 


301 


TABLE 21. 


CAPACITIES OF THE LUNKENHEIMER STANDARD INJECTOR. 


Size No. 

Pipe Con. 
Steam, 
Suction 
Delivery 

Pipe Con¬ 
nections 
Overflow 

Maximum Capacities at Various Steam Pressures 
Feed Water, 76° F. Lift, 5 feet. 

1251bs. 1501bs. 

1751bs. 

2001 bs. 

2251bs. 

81 

V 

1 " 

650 

665 

682 

700 

715 

91 

1 " 

f" 

835 

855 

876 

900 

925 

101 

H" 

1 " 

1110 

1140 

1170 

1200 

1230 

HI 

H" 

1 " 

1485 

1520 

1560 

1600 

1640 

121 

11 ' 

H" 

1865 

1910 

1950 

2000 

2050 

131 

2 " 

11 ' 

2320 

2375 

2440 

2500 

2560 

141 

2 " 

11 ' 

2780 

2850 

2925 

3000 

3080 

15 

2 " 

11 " 

3430 

3518 

3610 

3700 

3795 

151 

2 " 

11 " 

3820 

3910 

4000 

4100 

4200 

161 

21 " 

2 " 

4640 

4760 

4875 

5000 

5130 


The Hancock Locomotive Inspirator. The Han¬ 
cock inspirator consists of one apparatus for lifting and 
one for forcing. The original stationary type embodied 
this feature by incorporating two chambers side by side, 
connected at the top for steam, and at the bottom for 
water, so that it was apparent to the casual observer that 
each carried its own set of apparatus. The Hancock in¬ 
spirator works successfully under the most severe con¬ 
ditions. With high or low steam pressure, on all lifts up 
to 25 feet, when taking feed water under a head, with hot 
feed water as well as cold, for all steam pressures and for 
all conditions, its operation is the same and it requires no 
adjustment for varying steam pressures. 

The lifting apparatus consisted of a steam nozzle and 
a combining tube. The throat of the combining tube be¬ 
ing so much larger than the smallest opening in the steam 
nozzle enables it to increase or diminish the amount of 
water as the pressure of steam increases or decreases. As 














302 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


pressure of steam increases, the pressure in the forcing 
chamber or delivery chamber of the lifter is increased, 
enabling the water to enter the forcer combining tube 
against the increased tension of the steam from the forc¬ 
ing nozzle, thus enabling it to work from low pressures to 
high without any adjustment of either steam or water 
supply. The forcing or combining tube being made with¬ 
out any openings between its mouth and discharge end, 
permits of the steam and water combining up to a very 
high temperature, the overflow being closed positively. 

The above described apparatus as made and used was 
provided with a separate valve for opening and closing 
the intermediate overflow in starting, and valve for open¬ 
ing and closing the steam to the forcer and the final over¬ 
flow valve. While each was very simple in construction 
and the operating of the inspirator was easily understood, 
still for locomotive purposes it was considered that the 
functions performed by the valves above mentioned 
should be brought under the control of one operating 
lever. 

To accomplish this, the Hancock locomotive inspirator, 
Fig. 135, operated by a single lever, was evolved, and is 
made in different types to suit different connections. 

The present Hancock locomotive inspirator will work 
successfully with pressures of steam from 35 lbs. to 350 
lbs. without any adjustment of either steam or water, and 
the proportions are such as to increase its quantity of 
water from 35 lbs. to 200 lbs., this being about the average 
pressures carried on locomotives, and while its maximum 
capacity is at 200 lbs. the percentage of decrease from 200 
lbs. down to 160 lbs. is not enough to interfere with the 
requirements of the locomotive. It will lift water 
promptly on the highest lifts encountered in locomotive 


CARE AND OPERATION 


303 


practice, even if the suction becomes heated or filled with 
hot water. 

It will take feed water at a temperature of 125 0 re¬ 
liably with a steam pressure of 200 lbs. Tests have been 
made where the inspirator has taken water on a lift of 
two feet at 132 0 with 200 lbs. of steam and at 140° with 
140 lbs. of steam. 



Fig. 135. The Hancock Inspirator. 


Regulation from Maximum to Minimum. The regu¬ 
lation of this machine from maximum to minimum is ac¬ 
complished by simply reducing the amount of steam sup¬ 
plied to the lifting apparatus. 



304 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


As has been before mentioned, the combining tube has 
no openings between its mouth and delivery end, and it 
admits of a positively closed overflow; hence all water 
passing through the combining tube must go to the boiler 
and cannot escape at the overflow. This condition is 
possible on account of the two sets of tubes, the lifting 
tube acting as a regulator and governor for the forcer, 
hence requiring no adjustment from the lowest to the 
highest steam pressures within its entire range. 

Internal Arrangement. The intermediate overflow 
valve operates automatically, its only function being to 
give direct relief to the lifter steam nozzle when lifting 
or priming, and comes to its seat when the forcer steam 
is applied and is held there by the pressure exerted by the 
forcer. 

An observation of the internal parts of this instrument, 
Fig. 136, will show at once the simplicity of its con¬ 
struction and the ease with which it can be repaired and 
parts renewed. 

Material. In the manufacture of the Hancock loco¬ 
motive inspirator the formulae used in the composition 
of the material for the several parts have been selected 
especially for the service each part has to perform. The 
tubes and valves are made of composition that does not 
contain zinc. Other parts are constructed of material that 
will produce the least wear with its companion piece. As 
with the high temperatures incident upon high pressure 
of steam, care has been taken in the selection of the com¬ 
position of parts that would work in harmony without 
abrasion. The bodies are made of a composition con¬ 
taining about 10 per cent of tin. 

The Hancock Inspirator Co. furnish the following table 
of capacities and sizes of pipe connections for type A: 


CARE AND OPERATION 


305 


TABLE 22. 

CAPACITIES AND SIZES OF PIPE CONNECTIONS. 



Capacity per Hour 

Pipe Connections 

Size 

Steam Pressures 

Steam 

Suction 

Delivery 

Overflow 


160 Pounds 

210 Pounds 

Iron 

Copper 

Iron 

Copper 

Iron 

Copper 

Iron 

Copper 

5 

1180 gals. 

1210 gals. 

1H 

l X 

IX 

m 

IX 

m 

ix 

IX 

6 

1605 gals. 

1647 gals. 

1 H 

m 

m 


l X 

m 

IX 

IX 

7 

2095 gals. 

2151 gals. 

1 X 

m 

l X 

m 

IX 

i 

IX 

IX 

8 

2651 gals. 

2723 gals. 

2 

2 

2 

2X 

2 

2 

IX 

IX 

9 

2954 gals. 

3034 gals. 

2 

2 

2 

2X 

2 

2 

IX 

IX 

10 

3961 gals. 

4068 gals. 

2 

2X 

2X 

2X 

2 

2X 

2 

2X 

11 

4700 gals. 

4810 gals. 

2 X 

2X 

3 

3X 

2H 

2X 

2 

2X 

12 

5700 gals. 

5950 gals. 

2X 

2: X 

3 

3X 

2J^ 

2X 

2 

2X 



Fig. 136. The Hancock Inspirator—Sectional View. 




































































































306 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Type A Hancock inspirator will interchange and fit the 
Monitor coupling connections. 

Hancock inspirators, type A, sizes 5 and 6, have the 
same size body and interchange. Sizes 8, 9 and 9^ have 
the same size body and interchange. 

Type B Hancock inspirator will interchange and fit 
the Sellers coupling connections. 

Hancock inspirators, type B, sizes 5, 6 and 7, have the 
same size body and interchange. Sizes 8, 9 and g l / 2 
have the same size body and interchange. 

The Hancock inspirators, types A, B and D, differ 
only in the form of the bodies and connections. All in¬ 
ternal parts are the same for corresponding sizes. All 
external parts are the same for corresponding sizes, ex¬ 
cept part No. 106 (connecting rod). 

Directions for Connecting and Operating. To 
obtain the best results, locate the inspirator with the over¬ 
flow nozzle about 4 in. above the water in the tank. Take 
the steam through a dry pipe from the dome. Connec¬ 
tions from the inspirator to the dome must not be smaller 
than the inside diameter of the size of copper pipe given 
in Table 22. The openings in the suction or feed pipe 
connections from the inspirator to the tank must not be 
smaller than the inside diameter of the sizes of iron pipe 
given in Table 22. 

Overflow Pipe. An ordinary source of annoyance 
very often occurs from the overflow nozzle, or overflow 
pipe becoming filled up, contracting the openings so that 
the inspirator will not lift or prime promptly. Some¬ 
times it occurs that when the overflow nozzle is all free 
and clear, the overflow pipe is apt to escape the atten¬ 
tion of the person doing the repairs or overhauling the 
inspirator, and is reported not working satisfactorily. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


307 


It is almost impossible to ascertain this without remov¬ 
ing the pipe. These pipes should always be looked over 
and kept free. 

Intermediate or Line Check Valve. The intermediate 
or line check valve in the delivery pipe should receive 
attention. The line check valve in the delivery end of the 
inspirator, in case of impure water, should be looked after 
frequently. When the inspirator is provided with a swing 
check valve, care should be taken to keep this valve clear 
from deposits resulting from impurities in the water. 

Suction Pipes. Where iron suction pipes are used, 
especially if the pipe is in two pieces and connected by 
unions, they should be carefully watched to see that they 
are absolutely tight and well supported, as a very slight 
leakage of air will materially reduce the capacity of the 
inspirator, and if too large a quantity of air is admitted it 
will cause the inspirator to break. 

In General. It is very important that there should 
be ample steam and water supply to all types of the Han¬ 
cock inspirator. It sometimes occurs that the inspirator 
will not work satisfactorily with the regulating valve 
wide open or at its maximum, but will work when this 
valve is partially closed or when at its minimum. This 
indicates clearly an insufficient steam supply. It may be 
due to the contracted openings in the valve next to the 
boiler, combination box, or too small dry pipe leading to 
the combination box, and should be remedied. An in¬ 
sufficient supply of water caused by too small size or re¬ 
stricted opening in the tank valve, too small opening in 
the goose neck leading to the tank, too small area in the 
strainer, a kinked or partially collapsed hose, or leaks in 
the suction pipe, would cause the inspirator to break. 

Operation. To start the inspirator, draw the lever, 


308 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


part No. 137, Fig. 136, back to lift the water, then draw it 
back to the stop. When the lever, part No. 137, is drawn 
back slightly, steam is admitted to the lifter steam valve, 
part No. 130, through the forcer steam valve, part No. 
126, to the lifter steam nozzle, part No. 101. The flow 
of the steam into the lifter tube, part No. 102, creates a 
vacuum, and causes the water to flow through the lifter 
tube, part No. 102, condensing the steam, and out through 
the intermediate overflow valve, part No. 121, and 
through the final overflow valve, part No. 117* * n the de¬ 
livery chamber. A further movement of the lever, part 
No. 137, opens the forcer steam valve, part No. 126, ad¬ 
mitting steam to the forcer steam nozzle, part No. 103, 
and to the forcer combining tube, part No. 104, creating 
a pressure in the delivery chamber sufficient to close the 
intermediate overflow valve, part No. 121, and open the 
intermediate or line check valve, part No. in. The final 
overflow valve, part No. 117, will be closed and the in¬ 
spirator in full operation when the lever is drawn back 
to the stop. When the pin in the wheel of the regulating 
valve is at the top, the inspirator will deliver its maximum 
quantity of water; to reduce the feed, turn the regulating 
wheel to the right. 

Regulating . To use the patent heater attachment, lift 
the connecting rod, part No. 106, until disengaged from 
the stud in the lever, part No. 131, then draw back the 
connecting rod to close the overflow valve, part No. 117. 
Draw the lever back to the point used in lifting. This will 
usually give all the steam that is required for a heater. If 
the amount going back is too large, regulate it by the 
regulating wheel to give just the amount required, as 
with the lever in the position described all the steam blow¬ 
ing back would pass through the lifter nozzle. Thereby 


CARE AND OPERATION 


309 



the closing of the main steam valve at the boiler becomes 
unnecessary. 

Type Composite. The Hancock composite inspirator, 
Fig. 137, consists of two separate and individual inspira¬ 
tors within one body or casing, which can be operated 
separately or simultaneously, as desired. Where it may 
be desired to locate both injectors on one side of the 
locomotive, convenient to either the engineer or fireman 


Fig. 137. Hancock Inspirator, Type Composite. 

who has charge of pumping the engine, or on the boiler 
butt, available to both, the advantages of the composite 
are apparent. Owing to the limited room in the cab, it 
is generally difficult to locate both instruments so that 
they can both be operated by the engineer and be equally 
convenient. 

It occupies but little more space than a single inspira¬ 
tor or injector, and owing to its compactness it has been 



310 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


found that it can be located in positions where in the 
past it has not been possible to locate two separate in¬ 
struments. 

It places both instruments directly under control of 
the engineer, and both are equally convenient to operate, 
the result being that both instruments are operated and 
kept in good order. 



Fig. 138. The Hancock Main Boiler Check Valve. 


Each instrument has an independent suction pipe, de¬ 
livery pipe and line check valve, thus enabling each to be 
operated independent of the other. 

In attaching the composite inspirator (either to back 
head or side of boiler), one steam valve, one steam pipe, 
one overflow pipe and one opening into the boiler are 
dispensed with, thus effecting a very considerable saving 
of material and labor which would be required with two 
separate instruments. 

The operation of the Hancock composite inspirator is 
the same as the Hancock inspirator, types A, B and D. 
To operate either instrument, draw the lever back until 



CARE AND OPERATION 


311 


the water is lifted, then draw it back as far as it will go. 
To put both instruments in operation, start one and then 
the other. 

It is desirable to use a double check valve in connection 
with the composite inspirator. 



Fig. 139. Sectional View of the Hancock Main Boiler Check Valve. 



Fig. 140. The Hancock Boiler Washer. 


The Hancock Boiler Washer. Fig. 140. A per¬ 
fectly simple and durable apparatus for washing boilers. 

Will either lift water from 15 to 20 feet or take it un¬ 
der a head. 












312 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


At a steam pressure of 100 lbs. the temperature of the 
delivery water will be about 120° Fahrenheit, or as hot as 
it can be conveniently handled. 

The hose or delivery end of the boiler washer is left 
blank, to be threaded to fit hose couplings in use, or will 
be threaded as desired. 

TABLE 23. 


CAPACITIES AND SIZES OF PIPE CONNECTIONS. 


Size 

Capacity per Hour, 
Steam Pressure 

Pipe Connections 

Discharge Nozzle 

60 Pounds 

Steam 

Sue. and Delivery 

lor end ot 
Delivery Hose 

Small. 

2200 gals. 
3900 “ 
6000 “ 

f inch. 

1 “ 

U “ 

\ \ inch. 

2 “ 

2J “ 

f inch. 

1 “ 

11 “ 

Medium... 
Large. 


Pipe Connections. For steam, suction and delivery 
connections, see above table. 

Place a globe valve in the steam pipe for a starting 
valve, and another valve in suction pipe for a water 
valve. 

If the boiler washer is to lift water, there should be 
an overflow or outlet pipe not smaller than one inch in 
size connected to the delivery pipe. Place a valve in this 
overflow pipe. 

Operation. If the boiler washer takes the water under 
a head, open the water valve in the suction pipe and then 
open the valve in the steam pipe. 

Vary the temperature of the delivery water by regu¬ 
lating the steam and water supplies with either the start¬ 
ing or water valve or both. 

If the boiler washer lifts the water, open both the 
valve in the overflow pipe and the water valve in the suc¬ 
tion pipe, and give steam with the starting valve. 













CARE AND OPERATION 


313 


When water appears at the overflow, close the valve 
in the overflow pipe, and vary the temperature of the de¬ 
livery water by regulating the steam and water supplies 
with either the starting, or water valve or both. 



THE THOM CHECK VALVE. 

An improved check valve for locomotives has been in¬ 
vented and patented by Mr. John C. Thom. The follow¬ 
ing claims are made for this valve by the inventor. First, 
that a secure seating of the valve will always be insured. 


















314 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Second, that the valve can be readily ground upon its 
seat in order to remove any scales, or dirt that may have 
formed thereon. 

Third, that the valve is effective in operation, simple 
and durable in construction, and easily and cheaply manu¬ 
factured. 


// 



As will be seen by reference to Figs. 141 and 142, it 
consists essentially of a valve provided with a tubular 
stem, having a telescoping and interlocking connection 
with the spindle. 





















CARE AND OPERATION 


315 


The following specifications and description, together 
with the illustrations are reproduced from the Locomotive 
Firemen’s Magazine. 

Fig. 141 is a side elevation of the valve with parts 
broken away. Fig. 142 is a sectional view on the line 
x-x of Fig. 141. 

The numeral 1 designates the casing which is subdi¬ 
vided into two compartments by a diaphragm, 2, having 
an opening therein which forms the valve seat, the lower 
compartment having communication with the water inlet, 
3, while the upper compartment has communication with 
the outlet, 4 , leading to the boiler. Pendent from the 
valve seat are arms, 5, which support a ring, 6, and form 
a guide for the valve stem. The valve itself comprises a 
disk, 7, having beveled edges so as to fit snugly against 
the valve seat and provided with a tubular stem with an 
angular opening therein and extending downward 
through the ring, 6. The lower portion of the spindle, 
9, is made angular so as to fit into the opening in the valve, 
stem while the upper portion passes through the packing 
box, JO, so as to have a rotary and longitudinal movement, 
and is provided for at its extremity with the usual handle, 
11. This spindle is normally held in a raised position by 
means of a spring, 12, which surrounds the upper portion 
thereof and is interposed between a washer, 13, on the 
top of the packing box and a similar washer, 14 , held in 
position by a key, 15, passing through the spindle. A 
drain cock, 16, may be attached to the lower chamber to 
enable any sediment to be withdrawn. 

Owing to the fact that the spindle, p, is normally in a 
raised position, the feed water can readily pass through 
the valve into the boiler, but any back flow thereof is 
prevented. When the valve is raised from its seat it tele- 


316 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


scopes upon the spindle, p, and hence is prevented from 
tilting, and will accurately fall back into position. The 
guide members formed by the pendent arms, 5, also co¬ 
operate to insure a correct seating of the valve. Should 
any scale or dirt get between the valve and valve seat 
they can be readily removed under the pressure from the 
boiler by turning the handle, 11, back and forth, which 
results in grinding the valve upon the valve seat. If de¬ 
sirable, pressure may be exercised in grinding the valve 
by pushing downwardly upon the handle, 11, at the same 
time it is turned. 


BOILER CHECKS STICKING. 

On the subject of the sticking up of boiler check valves 
Mr. D. R. McBain presents the following timely sugges¬ 
tions in the Locomotive Firemen’s Magazine: “This mat¬ 
ter is of somewhat serious consequence, especially on fast 
trains, where getting out on the running board and strik¬ 
ing the check with a hammer is about the only thing 
that can be done. The trouble usually occurs at times 
when the steam pressure is high, but it is not confined to 
that condition. The writer has noted several cases 
wherein checks have stuck open when the steam was not 
more than one-half of the boiler pressure, and, when 
checks were taken down for examination, they were 
found in apparently equally good shape. 

“While it is an undisputed fact that more checks stick 
up at high pressure than at low, I believe the difference 
is due to the fact that there are more opportunities af¬ 
forded (shutting off injector) while engines are under 
full pressure than there are when pressure is not high, and 


CARE AND OPERATION 


317 


I am therefore forced to assume that the amount of pres¬ 
sure on the boiler at the time has little, if anything, to do 
with the trouble. Some boiler checks are so constructed 
that after several months of use the check when open 
makes a steam-tight joint on top of the cage, thus lessen¬ 
ing the area for pressure on top to close the valve when 
the injector is shut off. In this connection it must be 
remembered that when an injector is being started the 
pressure in the branch pipe is higher than that in the 
boiler and after the check raises the pressures are about 
equal. Assuming then that the valve has made a steam 
joint in the top of the cage, it will be evident that so 
long as the pressure in the branch pipe is up to boiler 
pressure, or even quite a little below that, and this pres¬ 
sure is exerted on the under surface of the valve, which, 
on account of the joint on the top of the cage, is much 
greater than the surface exposed at the top, the check 
will stay open. When a check valve sticks open the area 
of its bottom is exposed to boiler pressure and if the 
boiler pressure does not go down (and that seldom does 
occur), the check, if making a joint on the top of the 
cage, will not go down. Good results are obtained by 
filing grooves in the top of the cage and on top of the 
check valve, so that the possibility of a large percentage 
of the area being shut off by contact one with the other 
is not possible.” 


QUESTIONS. 

222. Name the principal factors in the transmission of 
the steam from the boiler, to the cylinders of a locomotive, 
and from there to the open air ? 

223. What is the function of the steam dome? 


318 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


224. Describe the old style throttle valve. 

225. Describe in brief terms a modern throttle valve. 

226. Describe briefly the route taken by the steam in 
its passage from the steam dome to the steam chests. 

227. How is the steam admitted to, and released from 
the interior of the cylinders ? 

228. Is steam admitted to the cylinder during the en- 
, t tire stroke of the piston? 

229. Assuming that the admission of steam to the cyl¬ 
inder is cut off before the piston has completed its stroke, 
what force acts upon the piston to push it to the end of 
the stroke ? 

230. What is the function of a steam gauge ? 

231. Is this a matter of much importance? 

232. What type of steam gauge is the most reliable ? 

233. Describe the principle of this gauge. 

234. What is one of the prime causes of boiler explo¬ 
sion? 

235. What is a sure preventive of explosion from this 
cause ? 

236. Is the common, or lever safety valve reliable ? 

237. What are the requirements of a reliable safety 
valve ? 

238. Describe the action of a modern safety valve, or 
pop valve. 

239. How may the valve be adjusted as regards the 
point at which it will open? 

240. What precautions should be observed in the set¬ 
ting, and care of a pop valve ? 

241. What is a muffled pop safety valve? 

242. What is superheated steam? 

243. Upon what does the temperature of steam in con¬ 
tact with water depend ? 


CARE AND OPERATION 


319 


244. Describe in general terms the method of super¬ 
heating steam for locomotives. 

245. Are there any advantages gained by the use of 
superheated steam? 

246. Mention some of the principal advantages claimed 
for superheated steam. 

247. In the Toltz superheater how are the superheater 
tubes protected from the heat when the engine is not 
working steam ? 

248. What are the advantages claimed for the Toltz 
superheater ? 

249. Is the heating surface of the boiler increased or 
decreased by the application of the Toltz superheater? 

250. What two important advantages are claimed for 
the Schenectady superheater? 

251. What new features are introduced in connection 
with this superheater? 

252. Describe the course of the steam after leaving the 
dry pipe of an engine equipped with the Schenectady 
superheater. 

253. How are the superheater tubes protected from 
excessive heat when steam is not being used? 

254. Is there any loss in heating surface on a boiler 
equipped with the Schenectady superheater? 

255. What is the average temperature of the super¬ 
heated steam as it passes through the steam pipes 
on its way to the cylinders, assuming the boiler pressure 
to be 200 lbs. per sq. in. ? 

256. What is the temperature of saturated steam at 200 
lbs. per inch? 

257. What percentage in saving in fuel consumption is 
claimed for the Schenectady superheater ? 


320 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


258. What precautions must be taken regarding cylin¬ 
der lubrication with engines equipped with superheaters? 

259. What can be said regarding the feeding of water 
to a boiler in operation ? 

260. Upon what does the efficiency of a boiler depend' 
in a large measure ? 

261. Theoretically what would be the correct way to 
supply a boiler with water? 

262. Are these conditions practical ? 

263. What is the duty of engine men regarding the 
injector? 

264. Is this an important subject? 

265. When is a good time to use the injector? 

266. How may the latent heat stored in the water be 
utilized ? 

267. Mention another “right” time and place to use 
the injector. 

268. Should an injector have a wide range of capaci¬ 
ties? 

269. What can be said of the leading types of modern 
injectors? 

270. Who invented the injector? 

271. How can an injector lift and force water into 
a boiler under pressure? 

272. What two important qualities does steam possess 
that enables it to do this ? 

273. When steam comes in contact with a body in 
front of it what is the tendency ? 

274. What is momentum ? 

275. What is the velocity in feet per second of a jet 
of steam discharging at 180-lb. pressure? 

276. What is the function of the combining tube of an 
injector? 



CARE AND OPERATION 


321 


277. What are some of the requirements of this tube 
as to construction? 

278. Why does the combined jet enter the boiler? 

279. What is the velocity of this jet in the delivery 
tube ? 

280. What velocity does the jet need to enter the boiler 
carrying 180 lbs. pressure? 

281. To what, then, is the action of the injector due? 

282. What can be said of the Sellers’ Improved Self¬ 
acting Injector? 

283. What is its range as to pressures? 

284. How is the size of an injector determined? 

285. What is the capacity per hour of a number 9^2 
Sellers’ at 200 lbs. pressure? 

286. What are some of the things to be done in caring 
for an injector? 

287. What about the Sellers’ Self-acting Injector Gass 

“P”? 

288. What should be the quality of the steam used in 
an injector? 

289. Suppose that an injector suddenly stops working, 
what are some of the probable causes? 

290. And what are the remedies? 

291. What sometimes happens to the lifting tubes? 

292. Suppose the main check valve does not seat. 
What is to be done? 

293. If there is an air leak in the suction pipe, what 
is the result? 

294. What do lime and salts in the water do for an 
injector? 

295. If the inlet valve does not feel cool, what is the 
matter ? 

296. What type of injector is the Metropolitan? 


322 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


297. What function does the lifting set of tubes per¬ 
form ? 

298. How low a steam pressure will the Metropolitan 
start with ? 

299. How high a pressure will it work up to ? 

300. Is there any waste at the overflow? 

301. Is it easily regulated? 

302. What is the capacity per hour of a No. 9 Metro¬ 
politan ? 

303. How is the capacity of this injector regulated? 

304. What are some of the causes of this injector not 
working properly? 

305. What are line check valves? 

306. What can be said of the “88” Monitor injector? 

307. How should it be located with reference to the 
water level in the tender ? 

308. What kind of combining tube has Rue’s Little 
Giant Injector? 

309. How may it be used as a heater ? 

310. What type of injector is the “simplex”? 

311. What is its throttling capacity? 

312. How is it used as a heater? 

313. What is the range in pressures for starting the 
Lunkenheimer Injector? 

314. What is the capacity per hour of a No. 15 Lunken¬ 
heimer at 200 lbs. pressure? 

315. Of what does the Hancock Inspirator consist? 

316. How high will it lift water? 

317. Of what does the lifting apparatus consist? 

318. How is the combining tube of the inspirator made? 

319. What is the range of working pressures of the 
Hancock Inspirator? 

320. At what pressure is its maximum capacity? 


CARE AND OPERATION 


323 


321. At how high temperature will it take feed water? 

322. How is it regulated? 

323. What is the function of the intermediate overflow 
valve ? 

324. What is the capacity per hour of a No. 9 Hancock 
Inspirator? 

325. How should the inspirator be located in order to 
obtain the best results ? 

326. What is a frequent source of annoyance in the 
use of the inspirator? 

327. Mention other causes for the instrument not 
working. 

328. What is a “composite” inspirator? 

329. Mention some of the characteristics of the Han¬ 
cock “Composite.” 

330. What can be said of the water glass and gauge 
cocks, relative to the operation of a locomotive boiler? 

331. Is it to be considered of as much importance as 
the steam gauge ? 

332. In case the water glass should not indicate the 
true level of the water in the boiler, what is likely to 
happen ? 

333. Mention the principal causes for the erratic action 
of the water glass. 

334. Describe the proper method of connecting the top 
end of the water glass with the steam space of the boiler. 

335. At what point relative to the crown sheet should 
the lowest visible portion of the water glass and the low¬ 
est gauge cock be located? 

336. How long should the exposed part of the water 
glass be? 

337. How many gauge cocks should there be, and 
what should be their vertical spacing, center to center ? 


324 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


338. What is the proper height for carrying the water 
in the boiler? 

339. Mention some of the disa.dvantages that result 
from carrying the water too high in the boiler. 

340. Is a fusible plug an advantage to a locomotive 
boiler? 


AUTOMATIC WATER DETECTOR OR FUSIBLE PLUG. 


In former years the fusible plug for detecting low 
water in the boiler was considered a necessity, but in 
these days of high pressures, it is losing its prestige as a 
safety device. 

The rules of the United States Board of Supervising 
Engineers for steam vessels require a fusible plug, filled 
with block tin, to be placed in each furnace, at the highest 
point of the crown. 

With locomotives, however, the conditions are alto¬ 
gether different. The intense heat in the fire-box ren¬ 
ders all appliances of this character more or less unre¬ 
liable. 

The presence of the engineer and fireman continually 
in close proximity to the water glass and gauge cocks 
should give a close supervision over the water supply. 

The consensus of opinion appears to be, that in loco¬ 
motive practice, fusible plugs are absolutely unreliable, 
and should not at any time be relied upon to give indica¬ 
tion of low water in the boiler. 

A good water glass, properly connected and cared for, 
together with gauge cocks often tried, are the only trust¬ 
worthy appliances for indicating the true level of the 
water in locomotive boilers. 

In the Locomotive Firemen’s Magazine (Nov., 1904, 
issue) Mr F. J. Cole, Mechanical Engineer of the Ameri¬ 
can Locomotive Company, presents the following thoughts 
on the subject of fusible plugs: 

325 


326 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Mr. Cole says: “A fusible plug or low water detector 
is not generally considered necessary or desirable, nor is 
it essential to the safety of locomotive boilers. Unless of 
good design and properly filled with metal which can be 
relied on to fuse at a uniform temperature, it will usually 
prove to be worse than useless. Reliance may be placed 
on it and vigilance in maintaining the proper level of 
water relaxed under the supposition that the presence of a 
fusible plug will be in some degree a guarantee against 
low water and its usual accompaniment of an overheated 
crown sheet. 

“For this section of the country fusible plugs are applied 
to locomotives built by the American Locomotive Com¬ 
pany only to comply with the Massachusetts State law, 
which requires their use. Railroad companies in very 
few cases, of their own free will, require their applica¬ 
tion. Owing to the extreme heat of the fire-box and the 
variable conditions incident to the use of locomotives, a 
fusible plug, to be of any value whatever, must have very 
little surface exposed to the heat of the fire on the lower 
side of the crown sheet. This necessitates a small, thin 
hexagon head. The body should project above the crown 
sheet about ij^-inch to keep the fusible metal well under 
water, away from the hotter crown sheet and in order 
not to unduly reduce the water level and leave the crown 
sheet bare in case of melting. Print 661-A-iooo shows a 
good design of fusible plug.” 

Owing to the increase of steam pressure to an average 
of, say 200 pounds, the melting temperature of the filling 
requires to be higher than pure tin. Saturated steam of 
200 pounds pressure has a temperature of 387° and the 
melting point of pure block tin is 421 °. This margin is 
evidently too small. It is necessary, therefore, to fill them 


CARE AND OPERATION 


327 


with either a composition whose melting point is between 
500° and 6oo°, or use pure lead, which has a melting 
point of 594 °. 

The experience of one large railroad operating over 
a thousand engines was that unless fusible plugs were 
renewed every thirty days, they became very unreliable 
and could not be depended upon. After a newly filled 
plug is inserted and the engine put into service, the filling 
will commence to melt out from the bottom to slightly 
above the top of crown sheet, owing to the heat being 
conducted by the head from the portion which goes to 
the heated fire-box before it is sufficiently reduced by the 
surrounding water. 

The tendency, then, is for the hole to fill up with a 
hard accumulation of soot or burnt refuse product of the 
fuel. This, in time, may entirely fill up the opening, espe¬ 
cially if small. A hard scale frequently forms on the 
upper end. This can become so thick and hard, and by 
penetrating into the pores and crevices of the fusible 
metal as it partly melts and becomes somewhat porous or 
minutely honeycombed so as to change very materially 
its nature and reliability to melt at a given temperature. 

Only a small percentage of the engines built at the 
Schenectady works of the American Locomotive Com¬ 
pany during the last three years have been equipped with 
fusible plugs. 

Standard practice of this company in this respect for 
use at all works is as follows: 

“Fusible plugs are not to be applied to fire-box crown 
sheets unless distinctly specified. 

“In cases of duplicate orders raise question. 

“If specified, and of no particular design, use Card 66i* 
A -IOOO. 


328 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 



Fig. 141. Fusible Plug (Print 661—A—1000)—Amerloan Locomotive 

Co. 


“Exceptions: All locomotives operating in Massachu¬ 
setts must, according to State law, be provided with 
fusible plug.” 

































MISCELLANEOUS. 


The remaining pages of this volume will be devoted to 
a discussion of various miscellaneous matters pertaining 
to the care and operation of locomotive boilers. 

ELASTIC LIMIT IN BOILERS. 

The physical condition of metals under long continued 
strain, where the stresses are well under the elastic limit, 
is not as well understood as it should be, when the im¬ 
portance of such information is considered in connection 
with the use of boilers. The effect of vibrations in 
bridges under load is shown by test in the crystallization 
of the material due to the dynamic forces, a result to be 
inspected, but in the case of boilers in which the steam 
pressure is not allowed to exceed a figure for which the 
boiler is designed, the supposition is a natural one that 
there can be no forces at work tending to deterioration, 
provided the feed water is pure. In boiler design it is 
not uncommon to stress the material to not more than 
one-third the elastic limit, with the theoretical assurance 
that permanent deformation cannot occur. Age is a 
factor, however, that has been recognized in a perfunctory 
way, and it is the practice on some roads to dull the 
tooth of time by a reduction of steam pressure every five 
years, by an increment supposed to amply cover weakness 
due to advancing years. 

According to the Mechanical Engineer of London, tests 
have been made on plates doing duty in a boiler con- 
329 


330 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


structed in 1859, a boiler which had never been unduly 
strained, and which had been fed with pure water. The 
results of many tests of the plates from this boiler re¬ 
vealed a want of elasticity in the material, supposedly due 
to the long life under pressure. Those who were inter¬ 
ested in the tests formulated the proposition that a boiler 
should be taken out of service after a life of thirty-five 
years, notwithstanding it gave no sign of failure. This 
boiler was in service during a period of forty-five years, 
and should have been scrapped years before, by the evi¬ 
dence of the tests, but why this age limit should be given 
as above, there is no data. There is, though, no doubt, 
that reliable information on the ravages of time and stress 
on boilers is needed in this country. If such were avail¬ 
able to draw from, there would be fewer occasions to 
record mysterious boiler failures.—Railway and Engi¬ 
neering Review. 

DECLINE IN LOCOMOTIVE BOILER PRESSURE. 

From present indications, it appears that builders and 
users of locomotives have arrived at the conclusion that 
the limit has been reached in high steam pressures, and a 
gradual decline in the same has set in. The following 
interesting discussion of this topic is reproduced from the 
Railway Age: 

“The maximum working pressure for locomotive boil¬ 
ers has been gradually increased with the general trend 
of enlarged proportions and the demand for greater 
power. In the United States this pressure has been nearly 
doubled in the past 30 years, which is within the active 
working period of many of the officers now connected 
with the locomotive department of our railroads. For 


CARE AND OPERATION 


331 


some years prior to 1880 the standard boiler pressure on 
many roads was 125 pounds. In 1885 150 pounds was 
used by the more progressive lines, and in 1890 160 
pounds was quite generally used. In 1895 the pressure 
had increased to 180 pounds, and in 1900 200 pounds was 
tried by a few roads, and since that time it has become 
quite generally introduced. While some roads have gone 
as high as 210 to 220 pounds, there are now seen signs 
of a decided change, making 200 pounds the limit, with 
a tendency to go below that rather than above it. 

With boilers well constructed and good water it is pos¬ 
sible to work locomotive boilers successfully at 200 
pounds pressure, but these conditions are not found on 
many railroads in the United States, and there is at pres¬ 
ent a well sustained opinion that high boiler pressure 
has been responsible for many of the boiler troubles 
which have been so generally complained of in recent 
years. For shell boilers with fire tubes and staybolts, 200 
pounds appears to have overreached the mark for success¬ 
ful operation. Where pressures exceed 200 pounds, as 
in marine service, there is a tendency to use water tube 
boilers, and designs for this type of boiler for locomotives 
are gradually coming out. In the recent exposition at 
Liege, in Belgium, a locomotive, with a water tube boiler 
was exhibted. 

The present boiler in the locomotive testing plant at 
Purdue University was designed for 250 pounds pressure, 
and it was built with special care. After 30,000 miles 
running the fire-box side sheets required renewal, and 
the leakage of tubes, staybolts and mudring has been of 
constant occurrence, while the effect of incrustating solids 
in the feed water has seriously affected the operation of 
the plant at high pressure. The previous boiler, which 


332 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


was worked under lower pressures, gave little trouble 
from any of these causes. Dr. Goss, who has been con¬ 
ducting some research work on high boiler pressures, has 
already reached the conclusion that the attempt to in¬ 
crease beyond the present limits now common in steam 
pressure upon American locomotives can only lead to dis¬ 
appointment. The possible gain is small and is likely to 
be more than neutralized by increasing leakage, while 
the difficulties of maintenance and operation multiply. He 
says further that it is not improbable that the final re¬ 
sults will show that 200 pounds, which is a generally 
accepted standard of today, is, in our western country, too 
high for best results.” 

The larger experience with high pressure boilers in 
actual service on a number of western roads has led to a 
similar conclusion. The Rock Island system has adopted 
185 pounds as the standard boiler pressure for all classes 
of locomotives, with the exception of the Pacific passen¬ 
ger, which carries 200 pounds. The committee on stand¬ 
ards for this system recommended a reduction of maxi¬ 
mum steam pressure from 200 to 185 in order to reduce 
boiler repairs. In Germany, where steam and fuel econ¬ 
omy in the operation of the locomotive has been given 
the most careful theoretical investigation, the compound 
engine was developed in order to use high pressure steam 
to advantage, but the successful experiments with super¬ 
heaters on locomotives have led to the use of this improve¬ 
ment in connection with simple engines and lower boiler 
pressures. This is referred to in a very suggestive para¬ 
graph in Mr. H. H. Vaughn’s paper on superheated steam, 
in the proceedings of the last Master Mechanics’ conven¬ 
tion, where he says: 

“A possible advantage of superheating has not been 


CARE AND OPERATION 


333 


utilized in application in America, namely, a reduction in 
boiler pressure without loss in efficiency, although in 
Germany this has been usual. There is no doubt that 
the increase of pressure from 175 to 200 and 210 pounds 
that has taken place within the last few years has been of 
doubtful advantage. While there is a gain in economy, 
this is accompanied by an increase in the losses due to 
leakage, both in engine and boiler and by a considerable 
increase in the cost and trouble of boiler maintenance. By 
superheating, the initial pressure becomes of less import¬ 
ance, and with the proper amount of superheat it will be 
possible to return to pressures of 175 pounds or less, with¬ 
out any appreciable loss in economy, and with a relief 
from those boiler troubles, which have become more se¬ 
rious as the pressure has increased, it is probable that 
the saving from this cause alone will overbalance any ad¬ 
ditional expense connected with the maintenance of the 
superheater.” 

There is a difference of only three British thermal units 
in one pound of saturated steam at 175 and 200 pounds 
gauge pressure, and the difference in steam consumption 
is only two pounds per indicated horsepower hour in sim¬ 
ple locomotives. The slight gain in economy due to the 
higher pressure has in most cases been more than bal¬ 
anced by greater leakage and the increased cost of boiler 
repairs. It is safe to say, then, that the only advantage 
which railroads have gained by the use of boiler pressures 
of 200 pounds, or over, has been increased power in the 
engine. If this can be obtained without the disadvantage 
of frequent engine failures, it is worth while, and it is a 
sufficient reason for using the higher pressure. The net 
result, however, should be measured by the number of 
ton miles per month or year, and if engines carrying the 


334 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


higher pressure are laid up in the shop or roundhouse 
for repairs a longer time than those carrying a lower 
pressure, it is quite possible that the latter may haul a 
larger tonnage per year. The records of railroads should 
show what this difference is, and it would be interesting 
and instructive if some railroad which has reduced its 
boiler pressure on freight engines from 200 pounds to 
185 pounds should compare the total tonnage and cost of 
repairs per year for the same engines under the two dif¬ 
ferent conditions of boiler pressure. 


WIDE FIREBOXES FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

Railway Master Mechanic. 

The fact that the length of grate for locomotive boilers 
had reached the maximum for stoking by hand was real¬ 
ized some years ago, but it seems that it was only the 
conditions for burning anthracite coal that furnished the 
necessary urgency for developing the wide fire box. At 
all events, the large grate surface was developd first for 
anthracite coal. 

A very good reason why the large grate area was used 
first for anthracite coal was that the large grate was 
really necessary for the successful burning of this fuel, 
particularly so because the intention was to use as fuel 
the large accumulation of what was then the refuse of 
the mine, by such railways as had this fuel convenient to 
their lines and did not have bituminous coal equally as 
convenient. In a word, there was the strong incentive— 
in fact, the necessity—of developing a fire box in which 
such fuel could be successfully used. Although efforts 


CARE AND OPERATION 


335 


were made to use the large grate surface with the softer 
coal, there was lacking a sufficiently strong incentive to 
justify a study of the question with the seriousness neces¬ 
sary to insure success. 

Efforts were made to burn bituminous coal on large 
grate surfaces, but, as success did not come with the first 
trials, many men thought to profit by the experience of 
the few and continued to build fire boxes limited in width 
by the spread between driving wheels. It may be appro¬ 
priate to explain, in a word, that the conclusion to avoid 
the wide fire box was probably influenced quite as much 
by the failure of faulty boiler designs (which designs 
have been improved since, as dictated by experience) as 
by failure in steaming qualities. 

Until the more recent rapid increases in heating sur¬ 
face, the grate surface of locomotives using soft coal was 
not so prominently deficient, and any increase in demand 
for heat was met by an increased rate of combustion. Of 
course, this meant a decrease in the rate of evaporation, 
but it was necessary for a certain degree of tension to 
develop to justify radical departure from firmly estab¬ 
lished practices. This degree of tension has resulted from 
increased weight of trains and increased speed, demand¬ 
ing larger heating surface to supply the amount of steam 
required. The heating surface has, accordingly, increased 
at a rapid pace in more recent years, until it has become 
necessary to concentrate attention on the fire-box with 
the purpose of providing a grate surface, and • as there 
has been developed, first a means of increasing the width 
of the fire box, we have the wide firebox locomotive and 
the radical departures in designs made necessary by the 
use of the wide fire box. 

It is quite possible that a means may be provided for 


336 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


stoking by machinery a longer grate than can be properly 
stoked by hand, and if this develops it is reasonable to 
presume that this method will be favored. 

The wide fire-box is necessary for large grate surface 
and hand stoking, and in providing the large grate 
there seem to result incidental advantages which will be 
quite material as follows: The fire box temperature will 
be less intense, and, therefore, the fire-box sheets may 
be expected to deteriorate less rapidly; with the decreased 
length of fire box the service of the stay bolts should be 
improved. 

The wide fire box works in very nicely with driving 
wheels as large as 63 inches over tires and a boiler as 
large as 72 inches in diameter, giving a throat of reason¬ 
able depth, and placing the boiler not too high for sta¬ 
bility for locomotives with three, four or more pairs of 
driving wheels. Designs have been proposed for wide 
fire boxes over large diameter driving wheels, but it is 
questionable whether such would work to entire satis¬ 
faction with soft coal. The recent designs of locomotives 
with wide fire-boxes for bituminous coal and large dia¬ 
meter drivers, have used a pair of carrying wheels 50 
inches or 52 inches in diameter under the fire box, driv¬ 
ing wheels forward of the fire-box, and either a 2-wheel 
or 4-wheel leading truck. With three pairs of drivers, 
such designs require a long tube, and, if we anticipate 
a month or two, we may say that the 20-foot tube has 
been reached. With, however, many pairs of drivers lo¬ 
cated ahead of the fire box, the trailing wheels must carry 
the fire-box, and already we have reached what seems to 
be about the limit of weight on one pair of carrying 
wheels. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


337 


CAUSES OF INJECTOR TROUBLES. 

Engineers sometimes experience considerable difficulty 
in finding the cause for the failure of the injector to 
work properly and oftentimes attempt to interfere with 
the interior of the injector. When making pipe connec¬ 
tions, it is necessary to blow out the pipe clean before 
connecting the injector, in order to remove all red lead, 
scale and other substances that may be in the pipes and 
which would otherwise fill the nozzles of the injector 
and impair its operation. 

After the connections have been examined, and if found 
in good order, the injector is disconnected and the cap 
or plug removed for the purpose of cleaning the noz¬ 
zles. As a rule, when the injector fails to lift water 
probably the difficulty is with the suction, which must be 
absolutely air-tight. Another cause of failure is the over¬ 
flow. When the latter is choked or badly piped up, and 
is not wide open, the steam and air do not have free 
vent, and will not let the water rise in the suction pipe. 
When the water supply pipe is very hot, it should be 
cooled with cold water, or by turning the steam on and 
off suddenly at the starting valve, until the hot water 
is disposed of. 

When the lift is out of proportion and is too high for 
the steam pressure, and, too, when the steam pressure is 
alternately too low and too high, as well as a lack of 
water, will also cause an injector to fail. The strainer 
also may be clogged up, and when an injector will lift 
water, but will not force it into the boiler, the trouble is 
generally caused by not giving enough water. A de¬ 
fective check valve in the delivery pipe may be stuck 


338 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


down, or is not set properly and gives insufficient rise or 
lift, or a leak in the supply pipe, admitting air to the in¬ 
jector, or the delivery nozzle may have become dirty, and 
need cleaning; all these things tend to produce failure of 
injectors. 

When the injector starts properly, but breaks the 
vacuum, it indicates that either the supply of water is 
not properly regulated or a leak exists in the supply pipe 
or that the disk of the steam valve is loose. Connect¬ 
ing the injector steam pipe to pipes used for other pur¬ 
poses also causes numerous difficulties which are often¬ 
times hard to locate. 

To prevent an injector delivery pipe from freezing in 
very cold weather the following plan may be pursued— 

By using the heater, having the steam valve slightly 
opened, with the overflow valve closed, steam will flow 
back into the tender through the feed pipe and at the 
same time flow forward into the branch pipe. The heater 
cock should be opened to drain the condensed steam or 
water from the delivery pipe, otherwise it will fill with 
water and freeze. The steam valve should not be open 
so far as to cause water to become overheated in the 
tender, preventing the injector from working or damag¬ 
ing the paint on the tender. 

The following thoughts on inj ector connections are here 
reproduced from the American Engine and Railroad 
Journal— 

“It is not unusual for a large locomotive injector to 
throw 3,500 to 4,500 gallons of water into a locomotive 
boiler in an hour and yet such delivery is expected to 
be provided for through pipes no larger than were form¬ 
erly used in connection with injectors which would de¬ 
liver but 2,000 gallons in that time. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


339 


“While great progress has been made in connection 
with other parts of locomotives, the injector connections 
have not been given the attention which they deserve 
and the locomotive has fairly outgrown them. In many 
cases the old standards have remained the same for about 
twenty years, notwithstanding the fact that locomotives 
have been more than doubled in capacity in that time. 
With increased boiler capacity and high steam pressure 
it is necessary to use injectors which will deliver a great 
deal more water than that which formerly sufficed, and 
the time has come for a radical change in this prac¬ 
tice. 

“There seems to be no reason why at least 3-inch 
smooth-bore hose should not be used to connect with the 
tender tank. With this a free opening of 2^/s inches may 
be obtained in the fitting. A strainer at the valve in the 
tank well may be used and the conical strainer in the pipe 
removed. This would permit of using much larger chan¬ 
nels for the water to the great relief of the injectors. 

“It is not enough to enlarge the suction side alone, 
the delivery pipes and checks also appear to need atten¬ 
tion. The duplex check fitting supplied by the Brooks 
Works, which is shown in many locomotive engravings 
in this journal, seems to be a very good device, because 
it delivers all the water on one side of the boiler, which 
seems to be better practice than to enter it in two places 
and in two directions. This, however, is not the main 
point of this criticism. The free and unobstructed open¬ 
ing for the water is what is needed. A check that will 
lift but 1-16 inch for a No. 10 injector connected by a 
2 *4-inch pipe is not sufficient, yet this has been found in 
a recently built locomotive. Such an injector needs at 
least an even equivalent to a 2-inch hole. In one of the 


340 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


reports presented to the Master Mechanics’ Association 
last June the following suggestions occur: 

“As the water evaporation is heavy, a good inlet from 
tank to injector should be provided. A majority of the 
manufacturers prefer the following sizes of feed-pipe in 
connection with the different-sized injectors: 

“No. 8, not less than 2 inches internal diameter. 

“Nos. 9 and 10, not less than 2^/2 inches internal di¬ 
ameter. 

“Nos. 11 and 12, not less than 3 inches internal 
diameter.” 

Cleaning Flues. The entry on the round-house work 
book of “Bore out flues,” generally results in two men 
getting on the engine with one long and one short “flue 
auger.” With these two “pokers” the tw T o men are en¬ 
abled to spend two to four hours ostensibly at work, but 
in the matter of desired results very little indeed is ac¬ 
complished. The use of compressed air for blowing out 
the tubes is rarely undertaken because of the impression 
that a too great quantity would be needed. The use of 
steam is disagreeable because of its heat. On actual trial 
of compressed air, however, it will be found that not a 
great quantity is needed. The pump of one engine alone 
on an adjoining pit will furnish plenty of air, while the 
speed with which the tubes can be blown entirely free of 
the accumulation is surprising, as is also the number of 
solidly stopped tubes which can be freed by this means 
alone. Another commendable feature of this plan is that 
but one man is required for the work and that the foreman 
can easily keep track of his continuity of endeavor, for his 
cessation of work is indicated by a cessation of dust com¬ 
ing out of the stack. The adoption of this plan at one 
terminal largely reduced the number of such reports, for 


CARE AND OPERATION 


341 


it was found that well-cleaned tubes were not reported so 
often, while the ease and rapidity of boring by this method 
rendered the shop force less inclined to put off and slight 
the work. The contrivance used was simply a piece of 
half-inch pipe, with the hose attached to one end, the ? 
other end slipped six inches through a hole bored in a 
flue plug. A cutout cock was placed in the length of the 
pipe to enable the workmen to shut off the air while cross¬ 
ing the bridges in the tube sheet. 


LUBRICATOR ACTING AS A SIPHON. 

Sometimes it happens that as the boiler is cooled off, 
oil from the lubricator is siphoned into the boiler. The 
cause of this is explained as follows: 

When a boiler is in service it contains water and steam 
at a temperature in proportion to the pressure. The 
steam and water occupy space. When allowed to cool the 
steam is condensed, and the water, losing its heat, also 
occupies less space. When this occurs a vacuum is formed 
in the boiler. Atmospheric pressure surrounding the 
boiler trying to get in and destroy the vacuum is the 
cause of the oil siphoning out of the lubricator, and this 
occurs only when the lubricator is not perfectly tight in 
all joints. A very slight leak at filling plug, around the 
gaskets of the oil glass, or packing nut on the feed valve, 
will admit air enough to destroy the vacuum and allow 
atmospheric pressure on top of the oil in the cup. The 
vacuum in the boiler will tend to draw the oil up through 
the steam pipe above the water valve when it is open, and 
as this passage or pipe extends nearly to the bottom of the 
oil cup it affords an easy passage for the oil to siphon 


342 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


into the boiler. If the oil cup was absolutely airtight oil 
would not siphon out. This is why it only takes place 
occasionally on certain engines when the lubricators are 
not absolutely tight. 

HORSE POWER OF BOILERS. 

The latest decision of the American Society of Mechan¬ 
ical Engineers (than whom there is no better authority) 
regarding the horse power of a boiler is as follows: “The 
unit of commercial horse power developed by a boiler shall 
be taken as 34^ units of evaporation per hour. That is, 
34 ]/2 lbs, of water evaporated per hour from a feed tem¬ 
perature of 212 0 into steam of the same temperature. This 
standard is equivalent to 33,317 B. T. U. per hour. It 
is also practically equivalent to an evaporation of 30 lbs. 
of water from a feed water temperature of ioo° F. into 
steam of 70 lbs. gauge pressure.” 

POUNDS OF WATER CONVERTED INTO STEAM BY HEAT OF ONE 
POUND OF COAL. 

In ordinary locomotive practice from five to eight 
pounds of water are converted into steam by the heat of 
one pound of coal. Ordinarily, six pounds of water per 
pound of coal is an average. 

A WATER-TUBE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

The illustrations, Figs. 144, 145 and 146 here shown 
are of a water-tube locomotive boiler which has been in 
successful use on the Algerian lines of the Paris, Lyons 
and Mediterranean Railway, and was built after the de¬ 
signs of Mr. J. Robert, the chief engineer. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


343 




144. Water-Tube Locomotive Boiler, Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Railway^-Longitudinal Section. 







































































































344 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Within the boiler are two horizontal drums, the larger 
being above and the smaller below, which are connected 
by three upright tubes or pipes, as well as by the circu¬ 
lating tubes. The lower drum is filled with water, and 
the upper drum contains both water and steam. 

The side walls of the fire-box are formed by a series 
of tubes which connect the upper drum with headers be¬ 
low the grate level, these headers also being connected 
with the lower drum by circulating pipes. The gases from 
the fire-box pass between the nests of water tubes on their 
way to the smoke-box. 

FH 



Fig. 145. Water-Tube Locomotive Boiler—Cross Section. 

This boiler is said to have special advantages over the 
ordinary boiler in the ease with which it may be cleaned, 
no flat surfaces to be stayed by bolts or braces, less weight 
for the same amount of heating surface, and less time re¬ 
quired for making repairs. 

















CARE AND OPERATION 


345 


HOW TO MAKE LIGHT REPAIRS ON THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

The boiler has arrived at that stage when it is necessary 
to remove all of the tubes, if they are close together, say, 
Yz in. to in., this will be from two and a half to three 
years after engine was put in service; should they be J/$ 
in. to I in. apart, it will be three and a half to four years, 
provided that the boiler is using the ordinary run of 
water. Should the feed-water be such that considerable 
scale is formed of a hard, stony nature—impervious to 
water—the life of the tubes between settings will be 
shortened from six to eight months. 



Fig. 146. Water-Tube Locomotive Boiler-Cross Section. 

Rainy seasons also shorten the life of tubes between 
settings, especially in boilers in which scale has formed to 
a considerable extent. 

The soft water loosens the scale which has formed on 
the tubes and it is lodged between the tubes; at every 
successive rain more scale is loosened and lodges between 
the tubes, until finally all the space is filled up, making 
the removal of tubes necessary. 












34(3 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The usual method of making repairs at this time is to 
remove tubes, make a cursory examination of the external 
portion of the shell—if lagging is removed—and caulk 
all leaks. If any stay bolts are broken they are renewed, 
a few rivets taken out of mud ring and replaced with new 
ones, and seams in fire-box caulked where necessary. 

If stay bolts and radial stays or crown-bar rivets are 
not leaking (they should not be if boiler has received 
proper care), no attention is paid to them. The mud and 
loose scale is thrown out of the boiler, it is given a rins¬ 
ing, the tubes are replaced, and the boiler is “just as good 
as new” and ready for service. This is by no means an 
exceptional way of making repairs. 

When a boiler needs no other repairs than the changing 
of tubes the greatest amount of labor should be put on the 
inner part of the boiler. You will want your best man 
to do it, not necessarily the best mechanic, but a man with 
patience, endurance and perseverance, plenty of stick is 
what is needed. Furnish him with all kinds of cleaning 
rods, a scaling pick, hammer and chisel, a few torches 
made of y$ in. steel wire, wrapped at one end with asbes¬ 
tos, and a can of oil to replenish torch; can should have 
neck large enough to allow the insertion of torch. Have 
all the scale cleaned from sides of water leg, stay bolts, 
crown sheet, crown-bar washers, crown bars and shell. 
Do not expect to have the labor performed in a few hours; 
it will take five or six days to do it properly. When the 
scale has been loosened, the boiler should be thoroughly 
washed; this cannot be done properly in an hour or two, 
but will take six or eight. 

As all parts of a locomotive boiler are not open to in¬ 
spection it is impossible to keep all parts cleaned alike; 
you may find here and there the water space nearly filled 


CARE AND OPERATION 


347 


with scale, and, although it has made no trouble, the 
trouble was not far off. 

The cleaning process should be begun at the lowest part 
of water space and continued toward the top. Especial 
pains should be taken with the inner end of stay bolts, 
inner side of water leg, crown sheet and crown-bar wash¬ 
ers, as these are the parts that make trouble on account of 
scale formation. The bottom of shell should also be 
cleaned thoroughly its whole length and about thirty 
inches wide in order to ascertain its condition in regard to 
pitting and grooving. As a rule, the shell will be pitted 
most just below the checks; the pits are not readily dis¬ 
covered, and must be cleared out with a chisel. If guide- 
yoke or frame-brace angles are fastened to shell with 
either rivets, studs or tap bolts the pitting is invariably 
worse around these than elsewhere. The pitting and 
grooving of shell should not be dangerous at this time. 

All braces, brace pins, brace lugs, crows feet and 
angles should be' thoroughly inspected. If the boiler is 
sufficiently braced, these should still be in good condition. 
However, this should not be taken for granted, as the 
safety of life, limb and property depends as much on 
good, sound braces as on sound stay bolts. 

It may be that the brace lugs and crows feet, instead of 
being forged from the solid bar, are made of two pieces 
jumped together, and that some of these are pulling apart 
in the weld. They should be removed and replaced with 
braces forged from the solid bar. Should back tube sheet 
have crow-foot braces riveted solid to tube sheet, they 
should be taken off, holes in pad or flat end welded up, 
a piece of i-in. pipe i in. long put between brace and tube 
sheet, new holes drilled in pad and braces reriveted. This 
manner of bracing allows the water to circulate between 


348 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


brace and the tube sheet, keeping the sheet cool and pre¬ 
venting cracking and distortion around the rivet holes. 

THE BOILER BENDS IN SERVICE. 

The frames of the locomotive are regarded as two 
girders, and are supposed to be strong enough to bear 
the weight of the boiler and all that is on it without yield¬ 
ing, but this is not entirely correct. 

The boiler and frames are secured to each other by the 
expansion braces at the fire-box end, the cylinders at the 
front end, and by belly braces at intermediate points along 
the barrel of the boiler. The boiler and frames being 
bound to each other in the manner they are, it is the sup¬ 
position that that combination is self-sustaining, but such 
is not the fact, as the boiler itself indicates. Keen ob¬ 
servers, who are responsible for the care of boilers, know 
that the boiler yields by its own weight when it receives 
heavy shocks. Where the belly braces are riveted to the 
barrel of the boiler, which has run any length of time, it 
will be found that around the edge of the rivets, inside the 
boiler, the sheets are grooved. Grooving is nearly always 
a result of-sheet movement. If these braces are not 
riveted, but are brought up to the boiler so as to fit around 
the under side, the working of the engine will show the 
chafing of the braces on the boiler, indicating the resist¬ 
ance it must oiler. 

Other signs of destruction are the small cracks that 
take place in the upper side of the throat sheet. These 
are generally supposed to be effects caused by some ob¬ 
struction to the expansion of the boiler. When the upper 
corner stay bolts and others next to the flange of the 
throat sheet are found leaking, it is evidence of the strain 


CARE AND OPERATION 


349 


put upon them when the boiler bends up or down. There 
is some spring between the flange and these stay bolts, 
but little or none in the upper sides, where the cracks 
take place. This spot may be looked upon as the fulcrum 
of the lever, as it receives 'the direct crushing effect, alter¬ 
nating as the boiler bends. The weight of the barrel and 
its contents, with the cylinder bolted to the smoke box, 
acts like a weight on the end of the lever, keeping that 
end of the boiler down and binding it to the frames. 

These destructive strains mentioned may be regarded 
as mechanical while at the same time there are still some 
serious strains caused by the unequal expansion and con¬ 
traction, due to heating and cooling. We have heard it 
said that certain boiler explosions were due to the act of 
God, but as a rule the neglect of inspection and proper 
reports by the men in charge are the real origin of the 
disaster. 

EXPLODING BOILERS FOR KNOWLEDGE SAKE. 

A series of experiments with boilers were made by the 
United States Government years ago that gave very 
valuable data about boiler explosions. One of the experi¬ 
ments was with flat-stayed surfaces that would very well 
represent side sheets or crown sheets secured by stay 
bolts. Heat was applied with plenty of water over the 
heating surface until the vessel exploded from over pres¬ 
sure. Dr. Coleman Sellers, who was present, describing 
this explosion, wrote: “It was fired up, and when the 
steam reached 125 pounds we left the boiler and retired to 
a safe place. In about five minutes, with about 180 
pounds gauge pressure, it exploded. The sheets went 
out in the form of dishes, each part where the stay bolt 


350 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


was presenting an indentation like a mattress. Every 
stay bolt was drawn out of its hole. No stay bolt was in¬ 
jured in the slightest degree on its thread, but every hole, 
from which a stay bolt was drawn, was enlarged suffi¬ 
ciently to allow the stay bolt and its head to come out.” 

This is information worthy of consideration by people 
who act as experts before the courts when boiler explo¬ 
sions happen. The writer was present at a law suit once 
over an exploded boiler, and the attempt was made to 
prove that the accident was caused by low water. We 
heard several so-called experts testify that the sheets 
must have been hot because the stay bolts were pulled 
through the sheets without tearing off the threads. 


LOW WATER SELDOM CAUSES EXPLOSIONS. 

The belief exists among many people that a boiler will 
not explode so long as it contains a good supply of water. 
Properly conducted experiments have repeatedly dis¬ 
proved the correctness of this theory. An easily made 
experiment is: Take a piece of steam pipe 3 ins. diameter 
and 3 ft. long. Screw a steam tight cap on one end and 
put water in the pipe till it is two-thirds full. Then drive 
a pitch-pine plug into the other end until it is within 
3 ins. of the water, giving room for expansion. Put the 
pipe on a bright fire and get out of the way, for an ex¬ 
plosion will follow in a few minutes. If all the water was 
converted into steam there would be no violent explosion. 
The violence of a boiler explosion is directly in proportion 
to the amount of water ready to flash into steam when a 
rupture is made great enough to suddenly release the 
pressure. 


CARE AND OPERATION 


351 


The Pennsylvania Railroad Company, years ago, car¬ 
ried out a series of experiments with locomotive boilers 
that prove most of the statements made. A locomotive 
which was condemned to be scrapped, was run out on a 
side track in the woods near Altoona, and experiments 
made upon it. The plan was to fill the boiler with water, 
raise a high pressure of steam, then run off the water 
until the crown sheet was exposed, permit it to become 
red hot and then pump cold water into it, to find out the 
effects. In the first experiment the boiler exploded be¬ 
fore they had time to blow off any of the water. They 
then took another old engine whose boiler stood the 
steam of unusually high pressure. After steam was raised 
the water was drawn off until it was below the crown 
sheet. They waited long enough for the crown sheet 
and the upper part of the fire-box to become red hot, then 
they forced a supply of water into the boiler by means 
of a powerful fire engine, and nothing happened except 
that the seams leaked and the steam went down. This 
was repeated several times, always with the same result. 
The boiler was damaged by the overheating, but no acci¬ 
dent happened. 


VELOCITY OF STEAM. 

The utility of high-pressure steam as a means of trans¬ 
forming heat into mechanical work results in a great 
measure from its expansive force, and the velocity and 
freedom with which steam passes from'one vessel to an¬ 
other or out into the atmosphere. The velocity of the 
flow of steam depends directly upon its pressure, and is 
as the velocity of a body falling freely by gravity from 
a height equal to a column of steam represented by the 


352 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


steam pressure, or to the difference of level between the 
height of the column of steam and the height represented 
by the pressure of air or other vapor into which the steam 
is passing. One exception to this is that the velocity of 
steam flowing into a vacuum is constant at all pressures. 

To calculate the velocity with which steam of any given 
pressure passes into a medium having a pressure equal to 
the atmosphere, the following process may be followed: 
The required height of the column of steam is estimated 
by its proportion to a column of water due to a certain 
pressure. The square root of the height multiplied by 8, 
that well known rule regarding falling bodies, gives the 
velocity of steam due to the pressure. Suppose we wish to 
find out the velocity of steam of io lbs. pressure above the 
atmosphere. It is well known that I lb. of pressure repre¬ 
sents a column of water 2.3 ft. high, and 10 lbs. pressure 
will represent a column of water 23 ft. high. At that 
pressure above the atmosphere, 1 lb. of steam occupies 
1,008 times the volume of a pound of water. So 23 X 
1,008 = 23,184 the height of the column of steam. Then 

^23,184 X 8 = 1,218, the velocity in feet per second of 
steam of the pressure given. A small fraction is omitted, 
but the result is correct enough for practical purposes. 

The quantity of steam of any pressure that will pass 
out of a safety valve, a whistle slot or other opening can 
be calculated by this rule; but it is found that when the 
opening is made in a thin slot the escaping jet of steam 
suffers a contraction, so that its area is reduced from 30 
to 50 per cent. 

To calculate the velocity with which steam will pass 
into a cylinder or other vessel that is already filled with 
vapor above atmospheric pressure, the difference between 
the two pressures has to be taken. Suppose we have a 


CARE AND OPERATION 


353 


steam chest pressure of ioo lbs. above atmospheric pres¬ 
sure, and at the beginning of the stroke there is a back 
pressure against the piston of 35 lbs. due to compression. 
The question is at what velocity will the steam begin to 
pass from the steam chest to the cylinder. Deducting 
the lower pressure from the higher one will give a basis 
for a column to generate the velocity. The velocity of 
steam passing from any higher to a lower level may be 
found at any point by this process. 

PROMOTION FOR THE FIREMAN. 

This is a topic that always is or at least always should 
be uppermost in the mind of any young man who has 
started in as a locomotive fireman, or as a helper in the 
round house, or machine shop. The subject of promotion 
of firemen, and the making of efficient engineers is one 
also to which much thought is given by the master 
mechanics, and other officials connected with the motive 
power of all successfully managed railroads. The follow- 
ing timely thoughts on the “Future Engineer” are from 
the pen of Mr. John M. Lynch, Traveling Engineer for 
the C. G. W. Railway. They were published in the April, 
1907 issue of the Railway Master Mechanic, and are here 
reproduced. Mr. Lynch says: 

“From my experience I would say that the best way to 
increase the efficiency of enginemen is to increase their 
confidence in the road they work for. The road foreman 
of engines or traveling engineer should be a man com¬ 
petent to instruct and get good work out of men who are 
willing to take advantage of his experience. 

To bring about this closer relationship road foremen 
of engines or traveling engineers should not be required 


354 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


to assign enginemen to runs or to discipline them for in¬ 
fraction of rules. It might be all right for the road fore¬ 
man of engines or the traveling engineer to make recom¬ 
mendations in this line but he should not be expected to 
carry them out himself as his usefulness depends largely 
upon the good feeling that exists between him and the 
men from whose ranks he has risen. He is continually 
with the men and is looked upon as their instructor and 
their advisor. They tell him their troubles and he knows 
all the difficulties they have to contend with, but if he 
is in a position to grant favors or discipline the men, 
they soon begin to regard him more as an informer than 
as a man who is there to help them increase their efficiency 
and thereby gain advancement, and they are less liable to 
receive his instructions in the right spirit and profit by 
them. When the enginemen look upon the road foremen 
of engines as their friend who will act as intermediary 
between them and their superior officers in times of trou¬ 
ble and who is doing all he can to make them more com¬ 
petent they will seek and follow his advice and then if he 
is the right man in the right place he will in time make 
competent men out of the most of them. 

In considering various methods of increasing the effi¬ 
ciency of engineers, it is well to give a great deal o.f 
thought to the question of firemen, for these men are 
the future engineers. Our firemen are taken from the 
ranks of young men who are employed to work around 
roundhouses at cleaning fires, ash pans, wiping engines, 
firing up, or any other duties that may be assigned them. 
For this work we try to hire bright, likely young men 
with fair educations. As a rule they remain as handy 
men in the roundhouses from one to two years. For this 
work they are paid about $40 per month and are given 


CARE AND OPERATION 


35-5 


to understand that if they prove competent, they will be 
promoted to firemen. 

Forty dollars a month may seem small pay for what 
these young men do, but a close study of the situation will 
prove that a man who will work for from one to two 
years for this pay because he is ambitious to become a 
fireman has the right stuff in him and will make a valuable 
man on an engine. 

There have been instances where we have hired young 
men with college educations and sent them out to learn 
to fire, but this class of men soon become satisfied to try 
some other work when they discover that firing is no 
snap, while the men who have gone through the round¬ 
house know what hard work and small pay are, and 
when their ambition to become firemen is realized they 
go at it with a will and a determination to earn further 
advancement/’ 

Another advantage of making a practice of promoting 
men from the roundhouse is that every man that starts 
there at the bottom feels that if he shows himself com¬ 
petent, he will be promoted and that some outside man 
with no experience will not be put in to fire over his 
head. This also does away with the demoralizing effect 
that bringing in men from the outside to learn to fire has 
on the men who have been laboring faithfully at small 
pay just for the opportunity of promotion. 


BRIQUETTES AS FUEL FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

In determining the best method of preventing the waste 
of our fuel supply, the United States Geological Survey 
has found that a valuable aid to this end will consist of 
the briquetting of fuel. 

“Briquette” is the name given to a prepared fuel made 
of slack or waste coal, of peat or of lignite, held together 
by a bonding material, such as pitch, the mixture being 
pressed into a compact mass, of a size and shape suitable 
for use as a fuel. Briquetting is the latest and most 
satisfactory method yet devised for utilizing the waste 
from mines. 

The tests which have been conducted at the Govern¬ 
ment Fuel Testing Plant at St. Louis, Mo., during the 
last two years have proved so satisfactory, that they are 
to be continued with even more vigor this year at the 
new plant at Norfolk, Va., where the briquettes will be 
burned in naval vessels in order further to demonstrate 
their efficiency, not only as steam producers, but as an 
admirable smokeless fuel. 

While the primary object of the United States Geo¬ 
logical Survey has been to find the best utilization of 
the fuels used by the government, the entire country 
cannot help but profit by the results of the investiga¬ 
tions. These tests have enlisted the interest of manu¬ 
facturers and others for they have resulted in the open¬ 
ing to the commercial world of a hitherto unknown field 
which it is thought is destined to become an important 
factor in the production of fuels. 

356 


CARE AND OPERATION 


357 


Within the last six months, eastern and western capi¬ 
talists have begun the erection of briquetting plants in 
North Dakota, Washington, Michigan and Missouri, 
their purpose being to manufacture briquettes from coal 
waste, lignites and peat 

The successful developing of the coal-briquetting in¬ 
dustry in the United States depends upon a number of 
conditions that are expected to work out well in the 
future tests. The present drawback to such an industry 
is the low price of bituminous coal and especially the 
small difference between the prices of lump coal and 
that of slack or fine coal. 

With anthracite and semi-anthracite coals, the differ¬ 
ence between the price of lump coal and that of slack is 
often more than sufficient to cover the cost of manufac¬ 
turing briquettes. There can be no question that the 
manufacture of briquettes from some of these coals will 
be successful commercially. Concerning still other coals, 
it is claimed that the difference between the price of 
lump and that of slack is either just sufficient, or scarcely 
so, to cover the cost of briquette manufacture, but the 
fact that briquettes present certain advantages over the 
lump coal may enable them to command a sufficiently 
higher price to afford a margin of profit. 

The most favorable outlook at the present time for the 
development of this industry is in connection with the 
use of briquettes in locomotives, and in domestic fur¬ 
naces and stoves. It has not yet been demonstrated 
that, at anything approximating existing prices, bri¬ 
quettes can be manufactured for successful use in the 
ordinary power plants of the country. 

The results of recent investigations have shown that 
on boilers requiring forced draft, like locomotive boil- 


358 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ers, briquetting so increases the efficiency of the fuel as 
to more than cover the increased cost of making. 

Another advantage claimed for this fuel in locomo¬ 
tives, and one that will appeal to the great masses of 
the people, is that the briquette is practically smokeless. 
When it is realized that the smoke from locomotives in 
railroad yards constitutes a large part of the smoke nui¬ 
sance of the great cities, the importance of this fuel will 
be seen at once. For the purpose of speedily solving 
this problem the Government will conduct a number of 
tests in co-operation with the railroads of the country. 

The Missouri Pacific Railroad, the Rock Island, the 
Illinois Central, the Burlington, the Pennsylvania and 
other railroads have been testing briquettes for some 
time with excellent results. The Missouri Pacific offi¬ 
cials have reported that briquettes were used satisfac¬ 
torily as fuel for locomotives in two tests made on runs 
out of St. Louis. The data obtained showed that the 
advantages gained were more than sufficient to cover the 
cost of manufacture. Although at the present time defi¬ 
nite statements cannot be made in regard to the practi¬ 
cability of this fuel for locomotive use, it would seem 
that briquettes are suitable for fast passenger trains and 
where high speed is necessary in express service, or in 
any difficult work, such as climbing hills, where the 
efficiency from coal is demanded. 

It is claimed that briquettes burn with a higher effi¬ 
ciency and with less smoke than coal, because they allow 
a better circulation of air, that the combustion is more 
complete and uniform, and they burn with more flame 
(owing to the added combustible material), and at higher 
temperature. 

Perhaps the most important of the tests to be made at 


CARE AND OPERATION 


359 


the Government Plant at Norfolk this summer will be in 
connection with the burning of briquettes under the boil¬ 
ers of naval vessels. Briquettes have been used success¬ 
fully in the navies of France and Germany for many 
years, and our own ships often when on cruise in the 
Mediterranean, have used them with uniformly good 
results. 

One reason for the increased efficiency is, that the bri¬ 
quette retains its shape until completely consumed. 

Briquettes made from Indiana coal were used on an 
Indiana railroad last year in order to compare the effi¬ 
ciency with lump coal from the same mines. The bri¬ 
quettes showed an increased efficiency over the lump 
coal from twenty-five to forty per cent. 

Briquettes were also made from West Virginia coke 
breeze (waste), with and without the addition of a small 
amount of raw coal. 

The briquettes made by both methods were hard and 
burned well, and doubtless would make a good substi¬ 
tute for anthracite coal. 

It would seem from these tests that this might open 
up an important industry which would utilize a waste 
product and produce a valuable fuel. 

Some experiments have been conducted with culm, the 
waste from anthracite mines, and these have met with 
excellent results. Briquettes made from culm are now 
being tested by the Lehigh Valley Railroad in its loco¬ 
motives, and so far they have been successful. 

With the growing scarcity of anthracite coal, the vast 
amount of fuel that now lies unused at the anthracite 
mines, may in the future prove extremely valuable. 


360 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


VELOCITY OF THE FIRE-GASES. 

There are several practical objections to the air blow¬ 
ing through the grates like a hurricane. The high speed 
of the gases lifts the smaller particles of the fuel, and 
.starts them toward the entrance of the flues, helping to 
' begin the action of spark-throwing. Where they find a 
thin or dead part of the fire, the gases pass in below the 
igniting-temperature, or tend in spots to reduce the heat 
below the igniting-point, and go away unconsumed, at 
the same time making a cold streak in the firebox, chill¬ 
ing the flues or other surface touched, and starting leaks 
and cracks. Then the great volume of air has, under 
ordinary circumstances, to be heated up to the tempera¬ 
ture of the firebox, and a considerable part of the heat 
produced from the coal has to be used up doing this 
before any of it can be utilized in steam-making. When 
a large volume of gas is employed it must be passed 
through the furnace and tubes at a high velocity, the 
result being that there is not sufficient time for the heat 
to be imparted to the water; consequently the gases pass 
into the stack at a higher temperature than would be 
the case if the movement of the gases were slower. 


SAVING THE GRATES. 

An important duty, which is never neglected by first- 
class firemen, before taking the engine away from the 
round-house, is that of looking to the grates, and seeing 
that the ash-pan is clean. When grates get burned, in 
nine cases out of ten it happens through neglecting the 
ash-pan. Some varieties of bituminous coal have an 
inveterate tendency to burn the grates. Such coal usually 


care and operation 


361 


contains an excess of sulphur, which has a strong 
affinity for iron, and at certain temperatures unites with 
the surface of the grates, forming a sulphuret of iron. 
Neglecting the ash-pan, and letting hot ashes accumu¬ 
late, prepares the way for bad coal to act on the grates. 
Keeping the ash-pan clear of hot ashes is the best thing 
that can be done to save grates, since that prevents the 
iron from becoming hot enough to combine with 
sulphur. 


TRANSMISSION OF HEAT THROUGH SCALE. 

The Engineering Experiment Station of the University 
of Illinois has recently issued Bulletin No. n, “The 
Effect of Scale on the Transmission of Heat Through 
Locomotive Boiler Tubes/’ by Edward C. Schmidt, M. 
E., and John H. Snodgrass, B. S. This bulletin de¬ 
scribes a series of experiments begun in 1900 by the 
railway engineering department of the University of 
Illinois to determine the relation of the heat loss due to 
scale, to the scale thickness. The experiments comprise 
tests on single tubes, as well as tests of the entire loco¬ 
motive boiler. 

The results of all the tests, plotted with reference to 
scale thickness, show great divergence in the heat loss, 
which is ascribed to differences in scale structure. The 
bulletin is of interest to all who have to do with the 
operation of steam boilers in localities where pure feed 
water is not available. The conclusions derived from 
the tests are summarized as follows: 

1. That for scale of thickness up to J^-inch, the heat 
loss may vary in individual cases from insignificant 
amounts, to as much as 10 to 12 per cent. 


362 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


2. That the heat loss does increase with thickness in 
an undetermined ratio. 

3. That mechanical structure of the scale is of as 
much, or more importance than thickness in producing 
this loss. 

4. That chemical composition, except in so far as it 
affects the structure of the scale, has no direct influence 
on heat transmission. 


CARE OF LOCOMOTIVE JACKETS. 

• There is nothing that adds more to the good appear¬ 
ance of a locomotive than a well kept jacket. The paint¬ 
ing may be ever so nice, but the jacket, constituting as 
it does such a large portion of the engine, if it shows a 
lack of attention, presents about the same appearance as 
a man with new hat and shoes and a shabby suit of 
clothes. 

Being unprotected by paint or varnish, constant care 
is necessary to prevent rusting. The treatment of a 
jacket on the road and in the shop is, or should be some¬ 
what different. In the shop, preparatory to painting or 
varnishing the painted parts of an engine, the jacket 
should be thoroughly cleaned with benzine or gasoline, 
and the more stubborn parts, such as where the grease 
has become baked, should be removed with concentrated 
lye. After thorough cleaning it should be rubbed over 
with a piece of waste only slightly moistened in valve 
oil, this should be allowed to remain until the painting is 
completed, after which the jacket should be lightly wiped 
off with clean waste, leaving just a scum of oil to protect 
the metal, and to present a slight luster. 

On the road, the jacket should never be without a 


CARE AND OPERATION 


363 


slight film of oil, or in other words, it should be wiped 
with dry waste, which should contain just sufficient oil to 
clean and at the same time to leave a deposit to protect 
against moisture. 

An excess of oil on a jacket is about as unsightly as 
the jacket that is never cleaned. This is not only un¬ 
necessary but is a waste of material. 

The jacket that is once thoroughly cleaned can be kept 
clean with very little work. 


LENGTH OF WATER GLASS. 

From the lack of uniform practice in regard to length 
of water glasses on locomotives, it would seem that either 
this matter has not been considered of much importance 
or, that experience on the subject has been widely dif¬ 
ferent. An investigation of the question, however, shows 
that it is worthy of careful consideration, and that the 
existing variation in practice is generally unwarranted. 
Present practice regarding the length of water glasses 
on different roads varies from eight to sixteen inches. 

Primarily a water glass is an indicator for showing 
the depth of water carried over the crown sheet of the 
boiler. It was devised as an additional check on the gauge 
cocks for the protection of the crown sheet against low 
water, and consequent burning. While the determination 
of the lower level of water carried in the boiler was 
deemed important, it would seem that the amount of 
water carried above the safe point was considered of little 
consequence and a matter of choice with the engineer. 
Thus water glasses of all lengths are found in service, 
although little difference in the location of the lower 
fitting is observed. 


364 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The location and length of water glasses is important 
from the point of safety and economical performance of 
locomotives. For the protection of the crown sheet the 
water glass should he located at a standard height above 
this sheet, so that definite instructions can be issued to 
engineers, that will apply to all locomotives. The custom 
of not following a uniform practice in locating water 
1 glasses on different types of locomotives has resulted in 
burned crown sheets, which could not be properly 
charged to neglect of the engineer. Unless the height of 
the glass above the crown sheet is indicated, (which is 
seldom) the amount of water carried over the crown 
sheet is purely a matter of guess work to the engineer. 
He can be guided alone by past experience, and that is 
practically valueless when applied to conditions of which 
he knows nothing. 

The length of the water glass is important, as it deter¬ 
mines the maximum amount of water that will be carried 
in the boiler. The average engineer will carry the water 
as close to the ‘‘top nut” as possible. It is readily ap¬ 
parent that the water level maintained in the boiler bears 
a certain relation to locomotive performance. When too 
much water is carried the result is generally wet steam 
and priming, which destroys lubrication in valves and 
cylinders, and reduces the power of the engine. Under 
certain conditions, water is carried over into the cylinders 
in such quantities as to break out cylinder heads and 
bend pistons. The practice of carrying a high water 
level in a locomotive boiler is not productive of econom¬ 
ical results. 

Present practice tends toward the use of a shorter 
glass, averaging about eight inches in length. It is be¬ 
lieved that this is the most practical length for a water 


CARE AND OPERATION 


365 


glass on a modern locomotive boiler. As a change from 
the old practice to the new would entail considerable 
time and labor, the method followed by one road in short¬ 
ening water glasses with little expense and delay, is 
worthy of note. The location of the top fitting was not 
changed, but a nipple of the proper length screwed on 
this fitting and over the glass, so that only the desired 
length of glass was visible. In this manner the shorter 
glass was secured at slight expense, and without taking 
the engine out of service. This practical method could 
be adopted by other roads to advantage. 

WATER FOR USE IN BOILERS. 

Water contains two classes of mineral salts, the in- 
crusting and the alkali salts, the amount of which de¬ 
termine its fitness or unfitness for use in locomotive 
boilers. The sum of these would represent the total 
solids dissolved in the water, and would be the residue 
left on evaporation. 

Total dissolved solids 

1. Incrusting matter or total hardness. 

a. Temporary hardness or carbonates of lime and 

magnesium. 

b. Permanent hardness or sulphate of lime. 

2. Alkali salts. 

a. Sodium sulphate. 

b. Sodium chloride. 

c. Sodium carbonate. 

INCRUSTING SALTS. 

The incrusting salts, or total hardness consist of the 
carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia, and mav 
be divided into temporary hardness, and permanent hard- 


366 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ness. Temporary hardness represents the carbonates of 
lime and magnesia. These salts, when the water is boiled 
at atmospheric pressure, are precipitated in the form of a 
soft scale or as a mud, which if allowed to accumulate, 
results in a dirty boiler and a tendency to foam. Per¬ 
manent hardness is sulphate of lime. 

When the water is boiled at pressures below sixty 
pounds this remains in solution and for this reason has 
been called “permanent” hardness. At pressures above 
this it separates as a hard scale on the flues, the result of 
which is continual trouble from leaky flues due to over¬ 
heating of the metal. 


ALKALI SALTS. 

The difference between the total dissolved solids, and 
the total hardness would represent the “alkali” salts or 
the sulphates, chlorides, and carbonates of sodium. These 
salts remain in solution after the water has been boiled, 
their total amount increasing up to a certain concentra¬ 
tion when foaming results. Waters high in alkali salts 
are, on account of the tendency to foam, unfit for boiler 
purposes. 


TREATMENT. 

There are, then, two evils that must be counteracted in 
a boiler water, the tendency to form scale, and the tend¬ 
ency to foam. The scale forming evil is remedied by the 
use of sodium carbonate, or as it is commonly called 
“soda ash.” This is one of the alkali salts that exists in 
some waters, but it cannot exist in the same water with 
sulphate of lime as the two would react to form sodium 
sulphate and carbonate of lime. Now if a water con- 


care and operation 


367 


taining permanent hardness, or sulphate of lime be 
treated with soda ash, this same reaction takes place 
within the boiler, the carbonate of lime being precipi¬ 
tated as a mud and, the sodium sulphate going into solu¬ 
tion. The result is no scale on the flues, but the extra 
mud and increase in total dissolved solids aggravate the 
foaming trouble. A systematic and liberal use of the 
blow-off cock will keep down the foaming trouble in two 
ways; first, by removing the mud; second, by reducing 
the concentration of the water or total dissolved solids. 
It has been determined that when boiler waters contain 
over 200 parts per 100,000 total dissolved solids they are 
pretty liable to foam. 

The usual practice has been to wash an engine out 
when it began to get dirty or show signs of foaming, 
but now we find that a sufficient use of the blow-off 
cock, especially the back water leg blow-off cock, makes 
it possible to avoid serious foaming troubles and to in¬ 
crease the engine mileage between washings very ma¬ 
terially. 

AH laboratory analyses are expressed as so many parts 
per 100,000. This divided by 1.73 would show the same 
in grains per U. S. gallon. 


SOFT COAL BURNING. 

BY C. M. HIGGINSON. 

The question of smokeless combustion of coal is at¬ 
tracting much attention at the present time, especially in 
western cities, where bituminous coal is the fuel most 
generally used. The agitation has reached such a pitch 
that ordinances have been passed by the common councils 
in several cities establishing a series of fines for the un- 


368 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


necessary emission of smoke within the city limits, from 
the chimneys of manufactories, steamboats or locomo¬ 
tives. The consequence has been that a large number 
of devices have been brought forward to public notice, 
having in view the combustion, or rather prevention, of 
smoke. 

Economy in the use of fuel is another pressing need in 
these days of intense competition. In both manufacturing 
and railway work the coal bill forms a large percentage 
of the total expense, and any material reduction that can 
be made in the same reduces the cost of the article pro¬ 
duced, or of transportation rendered. The desired econ¬ 
omy may be arrived at through the following ways—by 
more care in firing; by more perfect coal burning de¬ 
vices; or by use of methods which will allow of burning 
with relatively good results a cheaper grade of fuel. 

As a rule more attention has been paid by engineers to 
the question of the economical use of steam than to the 
efficiency and cheapness of its production, and in the lat¬ 
ter item lies one of the largest economies remaining to 
the industrial world. 

It is interesting to any one who has watched the ques¬ 
tion of practical coal burning for a number of years, to 
notice the rise and fall of different devices for promoting 
economy in this direction. Valuable improvements have 
been made from time to time, and, proving their effi¬ 
ciency, have been used for a while. By change of men 
directly interested, or on account of other circumstances., 
they are allowed to fall into disuse, with a corresponding 
loss in freedom from smoke, and a decreased economy 
of fuel. When the question is again agitated the same 
plan may be brought forward as an entirely new idea, 
and once more presented for public favor. In fact, of 


care and operation 


369 


all of the devices now being introduced or experimented 
with, nearly every one is some new adaptation of an 
old invention. The ground has been so completely cov¬ 
ered by investigation in the past that it is doubtful 
whether any new devices can have protection as far as 
general principles are concerned; but patents now issued 
are mainly granted upon the particular grouping or com¬ 
bination of parts used in each case. 

That in stationary boiler plants a comparatively effi¬ 
cient combustion of bituminous coal can be effected with 
a very small output of smoke is well known to all who 
have given the matter close attention, and such perform¬ 
ance can be reached with but little expense, and in many 
cases without the use of a single patented device. The 
simplicity of arriving at this end is often lost sight of 
through a variety of causes. Among them may be in¬ 
cluded the disposition on the part of those who have pat¬ 
ented devices of their own to mystify the whole question, 
so as to enhance the selling value of their methods. There 
is also much want of definite knowledge of the subject 
among those who are large coal users, and often a lack 
of interest on the part of those engaged directly in firing 
or operating steam boilers. 

The chemical questions involved in the composition of 
coal, and its economical combustion have been very fully 
treated by such writers as Williams, Clark and Prideaux, 
leaving but little ground uncovered, making it useless to 
fill out space with this class of subjects. Their investi¬ 
gations have shown, however, that in the combustion of 
bituminous coal a large proportion of the valuable heat¬ 
ing material is in the hydrocarbons driven off when this 
coal is heated. How large the portion of this volatile 
matter is may be seen from the following analyses of 
well-known bituminous coals: 


370 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Table 24 . 


NAME OF COAL. 

Fixed 

Carbon. 

Volatile 

Gases. 

Water, 

Ash. 

Sul¬ 

phur. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 

61.12 

28.35 

3.15 

5.38 

2.00 

Erie, Pa. 

59.13 

28.62 

3.85 

6.10 

2.30 

Straitsville, 0. 

56.15 

29.10 

5.15 

7.05 

2.55 

Hocking Valley, 0. 

53.48 

28.65 

6.05 

8.45 

3.37 

Brazil, Ind.(best block) 

58.79 

25.45 

5.46 

7.47 

2.83 

Brazil, Ind. (average).. 

54.20 

26.74 

6.35 

8.95 

3.76 

Fountain County, Ind.. 

50.28 

29.40 

6.15 

10.15 

4.02 

Danville, Ill. 

51.12 

30.11 

6.40 

9.25 

3.12 

La Salle, Ill. 

48.50 

30.16 

5.87 

11.60 

3.87 

Wilmington, Ill. 

49.36 

28.87 

7.12 

11.25 

3.40 

Morris, Ill. 

50.00 

30.36 

6.45 

9.87 

3.32 

Streator, Ill. 

49.70 

29.11 

6.87 

11.20 

3.12 

Big Muddy, Ill. 

57.80 

28.64 

4.85 

5.96 

3.75 

Ladd, Ill. 

47.69 

37.79 

7.00 

5.30 

2.22 

Dunfermline, Ill. 

42.49 

40.44 

6.65 

8.90 

1.52 

Colchester, Ill. 

56.80 

30.80 

5.40 

5.00 

2.00 

Rushville, Ill. 

52.90 

31.60 

6.00 

6.50 

3.00 

Wyoming lignite..... 

44.00 

41.00 

11.00 

3.50 

50 


Without elaborating the question of the chemistry of 
coal combustion, which may be found in any of the 
works we have referred to, we may say that from the 
results of numerous analyses, we find that a good western 
soft coal from a dry mine, consists of 55 parts by weight 
of fixed carbon, 30 of volatile hydrocarbons and 15 of 
water, ash, sulphur and other waste matters. The com¬ 
bustible part of a ton of coal would therefore contain 
1,100 lbs. of fixed carbon and 600 lbs. of various car¬ 
bureted hydrogen gases. The latter will contain on an 
average 500 lbs. of carbon and 100 of hydrogen. The 
relative heating value of the amount of gas driven off 


























CARE AND OPERATION 


371 


when compared with that of the fixed carbon in the coal, 
is as 7 is to 8, when expressed in amounts of water that 
would be evaporated from 212 deg. 

From the above figures we see that nearly one-half of 
the steaming value of this coal is contained in the vol¬ 
atile gases. Each pound of dry coal, constituted accord¬ 
ing to the above analysis, should evaporate, theoretically, 
about 14^2 pounds of water from a temperature of 212 
deg. In ordinary practice, however, the amount of wa¬ 
ter and ash contained in average western coals is larger 
than in our sample ton, so that the average steaming 
value possible for western soft coals can be considered 
as 13 lbs. 

Sulphur is a combustible element, but the value of the 
heat derived from it is more than counterbalanced by the 
damage done to the iron of the furnace. The gases 
forming the water contained in the coal are very com¬ 
bustible, being oxygen and hydrogen, but the heat given 
out by their combustion only balances that absorbed in 
decomposing the water to form them, so no real benefit 
is gained. This fact is lost sight of by many inventors, 
who lay great stress upon the decomposition of steam 
forced into the firebox over <the burning coal as an aid 
to combustion. 

In locomotives the use of the same principles that 
apply to stationary boilers will do away with much of the 
trouble which inventors are attempting to meet by means 
of spark arresters of all descriptions. As regards the 
question both of smoke and spark prevention in locomo¬ 
tives, it is much cheaper in the end to hinder the sparks 
from leaving the firebox than to endeavor to collect, or 
arrest them after they have once passed through the 
flues. The examination of the sparks that will collect 


372 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


upon front cars of freight trains, on station platforms, 
or in the extended ends of locomotive boilers will con¬ 
vince any one, we think, that much valuable heating 
material is wasted in this manner. 

With stationary boilers the question of loss through 
coal thrown from the chimney does not arise, but for all 
classes of furnaces it is now a recognized fact that 
smoke once formed can not be done away with, and any 
improvements must be in the line of preventing its 
formation. 

No matter how perfect the device is, a large portion 
of the ultimate success depends upon the firing, and with¬ 
out care in this direction anything short of automatic 
stoking may be rendered useless. 

In order to obtain economical and smokeless combus¬ 
tion of soft coal in any form of boiler it is important 
that all the following conditions shall be met: 

1. A good draught. 

2. Open grate bars. 

3. An air supply over the fire. 

4. An intimate admixture of air with the burning 
coal gases. 

5. Distance in which to complete the combustion of 
the mixed air and gases. 

6. Heating surface sufficient to conduct the heat de¬ 
veloped to the water in the boiler. 

The above conditions will probably be accepted as 
axioms by the majority of steam users and engineers, but 
in practice it is a rare thing to find a boiler or furnace 
either for stationary, or locomotive use that presents all 
of the requisites for good work. It may be profitable 
therefore, to look more in detail into the points involved 
in good practice, 


CARE AND OPERATION 


373 


The matter of a good draught is most important when 
natural draught alone is depended upon, as in the case of 
stationary boilers. To get good results from any class 
of coal a draught is necessary which would be at least 
equal to }4-inch water pressure in all conditions of the 
weather. Low chimneys—chimneys of too small area— 
too small connections between the boilers and chimneys 
—sharp corners in such connections—leaky brick work 
around the boiler, and the interference of the currents 
from different boilers, are all responsible for much waste 
of money, and great smoke production in many steam 
plants. These are all matters which, as a rule, can be 
simply and cheaply remedied. 

One of the oldest and simplest devices for improving 
the draught temporarily, is the steam jet invented many 
years ago by D. K. Clark. This method has been the 
basis of a large number of plans for better combustion. 
A series of jets can be cheaply arranged at the back end 
of the furnace, so directed that the blast from them will 
just clear the bridge wall, and will aid a poor natural 
draught. Each small steam jet is generally surrounded 
by an annular opening which allows air to be drawn in 
from the outside to help burn the gases, -though this is 
not always done. It must be remembered, however, that 
these jets use a certain proportion of the steam devel¬ 
oped by the boiler, and they need not be employed when 
there is a good natural draught. Various modifications 
of exhaust fans in the stack have also been used to this 
end. 

The result of general experience shows that in both 
locomotive and stationary boiler practice, there should be 
openings through the grates equal to fifty per cent of the 
total grate surface, yet in many cases not even twenty 


374 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


to twenty-five per cent is used, and surprise is expressed 
that the plant does not do good work. There should be 
also a free access of air to the grates, but we sometimes 
find stationary plants run with the ash pit doors closed, or 
locomotives with openings into ash pans much smaller 
than area of openings through grates. 

Careful experiments have shown that the bulk of the 
air which is necessary to burn the gases driven from the 
coal must be let into the firebox above the line of the fire. 
It is claimed by some that this can best be done by run¬ 
ning with such a light fire that a surplus of air can pass 
between burning coals sufficient to unite with the gases 
above. While this might be done with theoretically per¬ 
fect firing, we find in practice that in the effort to have 
the fire thin enough to admit of the passage of air 
through it, holes are left which allow such quantities to 
pass through that the steaming qualities of the boiler are 
interfered with. When the firing is too heavy, aside 
from the loss by gases driven unconsumed from the top 
of the coal, there is an additional loss from the fact that 
the carbonic acid formed in the lower part of the bed of 
coals in rising through the glowing coals, takes up a 
further amount of carbon, forming carbonic oxide, the 
additional carbon so taken up being wasted. The supply 
of air let in above the fire aids in burning -this gas also. 
Carbonic oxide gas burns at a lower temperature than 
carbon, and with a light blue flame forming carbonic 
acid. It is this gas burning which gives the light blue 
flame so often seen in hard coal stoves and furnaces. . 

In order to obtain the benefits of running with a thin 
fire, it has often been the practice with both locomotive 
and stationary boilers, to use too large a grate surface 
for the size of the boiler plant. The result is that more 


CARE AND OPERATION 


375 


coal has to be burned at times than is economical, 
merely to keep the grate covered in order to keep cold air 
from rushing through in quantity. When doing hard 
work the quantity of heating material produced may be 
too much for the boilers to take care of as designed, and 
the consequence is a loss of heat through the stack. The 
writer has seen good results, both in locomotive and sta¬ 
tionary boilers by reducing the grate areas. In locomo¬ 
tives an area of 2.3 to 2.5 square feet of grate surface 
to the cubic foot of cylinder volume is a good proportion 
for road engines, and 2 feet for switch engines. In sta¬ 
tionary practice a grate five feet long, and the width of 
the boiler will give good results with all grades of soft 
coal. 

We have already stated that experience shows that the 
air needed to burn the gases arising from bituminous 
coal gives the best results when admitted above the line 
of fire. Several other conditions are also necessary to 
insure perfect success. One is that there shall be no 
chance of large quantities of cold air passing through the 
tubes, and interfering with the steaming qualities of the 
boiler. The smaller these air jets with ordinary boiler 
settings are, the more intimate will be the mixture with 
the burning gases, and the more perfect the combustion. 
It is also necessary that the air passages be near the top 
line of the burning coal, so that the air entering can 
mingle with the gases as soon as possible after they are 
evolved. In case larger openings are used, it is neces¬ 
sary to provide some method of producing an intimate 
mixture soon enough to allow a flame way for the burn¬ 
ing combination before reaching the flues. It is also 
well to keep the line of the incoming currents of air 
away from the metal of the boiler proper, until the mix- 


376 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ture of gases and air has been effected, and combustion 
fairly under way. 

Another important factor is the area of such air pas¬ 
sages. It has been found by trial that with long flaming 
coals, and average firing, the best results have been ob¬ 
tained when such air passages averaged one-thirty-fifth 
of the grate, when natural draught was used, and one- 
fiftieth when a blast was used, as in the case of a locomo¬ 
tive. The area of these air passages should also vary 
according to the proportion of volatile matter contained 
in the coal, more being needed with a light coal than 
with one containing a large amount of fixed carbon. 
The proportions we have given above under the different 
conditions of draft, admit the necessary volume of air in 
addition to what passes through the burning coal, to 
effect the perfect combustion of the gases. In the case 
of anthracite coal not more than one-quarter of the above 
will be necessary, as only the carbonic oxide gas has to 
be provided for. 



When we come to the different methods of admitting 
air above the fire, we find that it may be done in a variety 
of ways. A large number of different devices are of¬ 
fered, but they are mainly adaptations of the following 























care and operation 


377 


methods: In Fig. 147 is shown a common form of sta¬ 
tionary boiler with fire grate B } door C, ashpit D, bridge 
wall E, flame bed M, flues JJ, and smoke flue I. In this 
figure we have shown the air entering through flues built 
in the bridge wall, and connecting from the ashpit to the 
furnace above the line of fire. The openings F can be 
molded in fire brick if desired, and can thus be made 
more numerous and smaller in size. The method of ad¬ 
mitting air is an adaptation of what was originally 
known as the “Split Bridge.” It may be well to state 



here that a “split bridge,” through which the air passes 
in front of and over the bridge wall, gives better results 
than when the mixture of atmospheric air and gases is 
effected back of the bridge wall. There are many other 
methods which can be easily used, of admitting air at, or 
near the bridge wall. A sight hole in the cleaning door 
N will enable the performance of the fire to be closely 
watched. If we have a good proportion of air supply, 
and fairly careful firing the working of the fire can also 














378 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


be watched through a small hole at 0 opposite one of the 
flues. The line of sight through the center of the flue 
will allow us to note the condition of the fire by the 
reflection on the brick work at the back end. 

The same watch may be kept of the workings of the 
other methods we show. In Fig. 148 we have the same 
construction of boiler and firebox, only the latter being 
shown. Here the air is admitted through one or more 
rows of holes, gg, in the side of the firebox, some 3 
inches or so above the line of coal. In another method, 



shown in Fig. 149, the air is admitted through dampers 
in the furnace door and is distributed through small holes 
in the outside lining of the same at H. This method has 
the advantage of being easily regulated if desired, but in 
ordinary practice there is not the necessary amount of 
air space allowed in the outside dampers. 















CARE AND OPERATION 


379 


The same result has been reached by running the fire 
as shown in Fig. 150. Here the ends of the grates near 
the fire door are left uncovered for an inch or so and the 
air from the ashpit enters, and passes over the fire, mix¬ 
ing with the gases. Various modifications have been 
made of the foregoing methods of construction with 
fairly good results. 



It very often happens, however, that the gases and air 
do not get well mingled at the bridge wall, but go over 
it in separate layers without forming perfect combus¬ 
tion, and this trouble has been a stumbling block to in¬ 
ventors who had with this exception successfully working 
devices. 

To obviate this difficulty the form of setting shown in 
Figs. 151 and 152 may be used with success. In this 
construction the currents of atmospheric air and coal 
gases are mingled by passing through the flues at AA 
in the bridge wall, and burn with an intense flame. The 
upper part of the bridge wall is closed solid at the sides 





















380 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 





.Fig 151. 



Fig. 152. 



































































care and operation 


381 


of the boiler to prevent the passage of air currents, ex¬ 
cept through the brick flues. The area of the openings 
in the bridge wall depends somewhat upon the quality 
of coal used, and the amount of draught, an ordinary 
proportion being 15 to 20 per cent of the grate surface. 
Instead of the brick checker work, small arches may be 
used, the aim being to make the burning gases go 
through, instead of over the bridge wall. 

The volumes of air that can be economically used at 
the door opening with this style of setting will surprise 
many engineers. For this abundant admission, however, 
it is necessary that proper methods of admixture with the 
coal gases be supplied, and it is mainly in presenting a 
.simple means for such admixture that we consider we 
have materially advanced practice in the line of efficient 
combustion beyond the results reached by earlier experi¬ 
ments. The form of perforated bridge wall here shown, 
as well as others of the same general character, in addi¬ 
tion to the work of mixing the gases and air, have the 
additional advantage of keeping the burning gases away 
from the comparatively cool boiler until their combus¬ 
tion is effected. After this point, the sooner the heat 
contained in the currents of heated matter is absorbed 
by the water in the boiler, the better will be the total 
effect obtained. The form of the flame bed back of the 
bridge wall can be varied to suit long or short flaming 
coals. The small sight hole at S, placed opposite the 
center of one of the tubes will allow the light of the 
flame at the back end to be readily watched, and the 
air supply can be regulated by this means without open¬ 
ing the furnace door. 

The claim is sometimes made that air entering the fire 
should be first heated to produce the best results. Ex- 


382 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


periment, however, does not seem to show that this is 
necessary, except for some special purposes. In blast 
furnaces the entering air has to pass through the melted 
product to some extent, and an advantage is gained by 
j having it heated, but- in ordinary boilers this does not 
seem necessary, as the same heat expended in one place 
to heat the air entering the furnace is lost in another from 
the purpose of evaporating water to form steam. 

The wall shown at D has the effect of making the 
heated gases impinge against the boiler after the com¬ 
bustion is finished, thus parting with heat to the water 
in the boiler more readily. A curve in the flame bed up 
to this point will have the same result. 



Fig. 153. 


The same principles should be applied to the various 
forms of water tube boilers, which are often very bad 
smokers, as also to the various forms of automatic stok¬ 
ers, and down draft furnaces. 

One . such adaptation is shown in Fig. 153. Here A 
is a fire brick arch, supported in any desirable way, C 



















CARE AND OPERATION 


383 


is a short flame bed next to the dividing wall, and BB 
is a fire brick roof which can be put in, in various ways, 
and which prevents the flames from passing directly 
among the water tubes. This combination provided for 
an air supply at the door, its admixture with the burning 
gases, and a sufficient flame way to allow of complete 
combustion. Results with this and similar settings for 
the various water tube boilers have been very gratifying, 
both as regards high evaporation, and freedom from 
smoke. With a form of water tube boiler where a roof 
of fire brick is placed between the tubes in the lower 
row, a bridge waH similar to that shown in Fig. 151 has 
been successfully used. 

It is often found that even with a long flame way and 
tube run, the gases still pass into the chimney at too high 
a temperature. To obviate this the return flue over the 
top of the boiler, as shown in Fig. 151, has been used with 
good success. In many cases the heat of the gases leav¬ 
ing the tubes from the ordinary type of boiler has been 
found to be from 650 to 750 degrees. 

It is claimed sometimes that the admission of any ap¬ 
preciable amount of air over the fire by methods such as 
we have shown with ordinary furnaces will have the ef¬ 
fect of cooling down the flues. That such is not likely to 
be the case when the air enters the furnace in small jets 
can be shown by actual experiment with a stationary 
boiler, the results of which are illustrated in Fig. 154. 
.Here BB are the inner and outer firebox shells with a 
water space, A, between, and C is the opening, admitting 
air from the outside. This tube, C, admitting air into the 
furnace was two inches in diameter, which is much larger 
than would be generally used. Upon looking through 
this opening it could be seen that the current of air enter- 


384 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ing the furnace assumed the conical form, shown at D, 
as it met and united with the gases of the coal rising at 
EE, and the extreme apex of the cone was not more than 
6 or 8 in. from the inside wall of the firebox under nat¬ 
ural draught, showing that in this case at least no body 
of cold air reached the flues. With a smaller orifice, of 
course, the distance traveled by the current of air before 
being absorbed is shorter. When the openings are larger 
there is more necessity of other means of accomplishing 
an intimate mixture of the air and burning gases. 



When the necessary conditions heretofore referred to 
are filled, an efficiency should be reached in dry steam 
produced equal to seventy-five per cent, of the theoretical 
value by analysis of the coal in question. When lower 
figures are shown by a careful test of any steam plant 
it may be taken for granted that some of the needed con¬ 
ditions have not been met, and steps should be taken to 
find out and remedy the trouble. 

The same principles apply to locomotive construction 
equally with stationary engine boilers. The conditions 
are somewhat different, however, owing to the shorter 

















care and operation 


385 


flame way, and the harder draught, which shortens ma¬ 
terially the time in which combustion can be completed. 
It is a well known fact that no combustion can go on 
within the small tubes of the locomotive boiler. It is 
often the custom, therefore, to increase the original flame 
way by means of a deflector made of fire brick, or by 
what is known as a “water table,” being a metal deflector 
with a water circulation inside to keep it from burning 
out. The former appliance seems to be the most suc¬ 
cessful, owing to the higher heat reached by the brick 
(which aids in the combustion of the mixed gases and 
air), as well as on account of cheapness of construction 
and repairs. One of the most perfect combinations that 
the writer has seen of this construction is that shown in 
Fig. 155 - This cut shows a portion of an ordinary loco¬ 
motive boiler with dome K, firebox A, firedoor B, grate 

C, flue sheet G, and tubes HH. Here the firebrick slabs 
E , extending across the box, are held up by water tubes 

D, as shown in the cut. These tubes are connected with the 
water spaces of the firebox in such manner that a circu¬ 
lation of water takes place through them, preventing 
burning. The arch as thus put in prevents the direct 
passage of cold air to the tube sheet. In some cases when 
the water is bad the arch may be supported by studs 
instead of water tubes. 

Above the line of fire, and extending completely around 
the box, are three rows of hollow stay-bolts MM, each 
having an opening of % in., the total area of opening 
amounting to 1-50 of the grate surface. The results 
from such a construction, well fired, are that an intensely 
bright fire is produced, while but little smoke is evolved 
from the stack. When the attempt was first made by 
American mechanics to admit air over the fire in loco- 


386 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


motives at other points than at the door, reports were not 
infrequently made that the employment of hollow stay- 
bolts showed no advantage from their use. This result 
invariably followed from not using enough of them or, 
from not using those of a large-enough size to let in the 
necessary amount of air. The following table will show 
the relative areas of different sizes of stay-bolts: 

Diameter of Area square 


inches. 


aperture. 
Y\ inch 
inch 
Yz inch 
Ys inch 
Y inch 


.049 

.110 


.196 

•305 

.442 


It will be seen, therefore, that the difference of area 
between 100 hollow bolts of varying diameters entering 
a firebox is very wide. Compare the area of those of 
y 4 and Ys in. diameter, and in the former case it amounts 
to 4.9 sq. in. and in the latter to 30.5 in., and the relative 
amounts of air let into the box vary accordingly. The 
same type of firebox (Fig. 155) may‘be used to advan¬ 
tage when boilers of the locomotive pattern are used for 
stationary purposes, as more time is given and more 
room afforded for the perfect combustion of the volatile 
gases. The conditions being more unfavorable, the mat¬ 
ter of firing can make a greater difference in a locomo¬ 
tive, than in a stationary boiler. Engines experimented 
with, having exactly the same dimensions and running on 
the same division with similar trains have, by difference 
in care used, shown the extreme limits we have indicated 
of 4 to 8 lbs. The matter of determining by experiment. 



CARE AND OPERATION 


387 


the amount of water evaporated by locomotives is com¬ 
paratively simple, requiring no special apparatus, and we 
are glad to see that more is being done in this line than 
in the past. There are many roads yet, whose managers 
would be surprised at the low performance shown by 
their motive power. With long shallow fireboxes, when 
a brick arch cannot be readily put in, the grates may be 


s' 






H 


Fig. 155. 


bricked up at the front end to reduce their area to pro¬ 
portions already referred to, and a wall of brick built on 
this floor will form a good combustion chamber and im¬ 
prove the performance of the boiler. 

The most efficient combination of various smoke-pre¬ 
venting devices for locomotives that have been 'tried here 


























388 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


and abroad may result in a construction somewhat like 
that shown in Fig. 156. Here we have the same arrange¬ 
ment of firebox as in Fig. i 55 > but from the flue sheet 
forward there is a radical change. From the firebox the 
burning gases pass through a series of tubes, HH, not 
over 2 ft. in length, but having an inside diameter larger 
than the ordinary 2-inch tubes. Next comes a combus¬ 
tion chamber at J, 30 in. or so in length. Finally, start¬ 
ing at the tube sheet F, we come to a series of the ordi¬ 
nary pattern of smaller tubes running to the front flue 
sheet at P, in the smoke arch, L. The advantages claimed 



for this construction are several, and may be described 
as follows: The ordinary 2-in. tubes are not large enough 
to allow of the combustion of the gases driven from the 
coal, to be carried on within them for more than a foot 
or so, and the length of flame way which is often too 
short is thus limited. This would not be the case when 
using larger tubes, and we would have a current of 
ignited gases passing through them into the combustion 
chamber. It is a well proven fact that the firebox surface 
of a boiler, and the first few inches of the flues are the 
























CARE AND OPERATION 


389 


most valuable for steaming purposes, there being much 
less result from the last few feet of a long tube. The 
reason seems to be, that a current of heated gas striking 
the mouth of a tube rebounds, as it were, from side to 
side. After a while the motion, under the influence of 
the draught, becomes more direct, and less heat is given 
out through the metal to the surrounding water. Fig. 
157 will represent the probable action of the gas currents 
in a tube, with the pitch of the probable course taken 
intensified. Here A is the tube and BB the flue sheet; 
CC shows the currents entering, and E those leaving the 
tube. That the gases pass through the tubes without 



parting with as much of their heat as is necessary for the 
economical use of fuel is well known. Experiments made 
with a pyrometer show that, in a locomotive with natural 
draught, and at rest, the gases issue from the front end 
of the tubes at a temperature of from 600 to 700 degrees, 
and that, when working, the temperature rises to 800 and 
900 degrees, and even higher. These temperatures show 
a loss in evaporating power for every degree of heat in 
these gases above 350 degrees, which is the temperature 
of water under a steam pressure of 125 lbs. The effect 
of the construction we have shown will be to make the 
action of the currents more irregular, and a greater por¬ 
tion of the heat will consequently be absorbed by the 






390 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


water through the metal. The use of some form of cor¬ 
rugated flue increases the absorption of heat by the water 
in the boiler, and thus reduces the loss through the stack. 
Moreover, the flame way being much larger, there will be 
a better chance for complete combustion, especially after 
the air entering through the hollow stays has been thor¬ 
oughly mixed with the burning gases by striking the 
brick arch deflector. A simple form of feed water heater 
will aid in absorbing some of the heat passing through 
the smoke arch. 

In designing a boiler similar to Fig. 156 care should be 
taken to have the steam and water space ample, otherwise 
the introduction of the combustion chamber while im¬ 
proving the combustion and giving a better quality of 
heating surface may, by taking up too much room injure 
the storage capacity of the boiler for water and steam. 

An example of the effects of a close admixture of air 
with coal gases may be shown in the methods of burning 
pulverized fuel. Dust coal when blown into the firebox 
bursts into flame almost explosively without smoke, each 
particle of fuel being surrounded by air for its combus¬ 
tion A familiar example of the effect of change in direc¬ 
tion of currents of heated air confined in channels may 
be noticed in an ordinary wood burning stove having two 
elbows in the pipe, one near the stove and one near the 
ceiling of the room where the pipe enters the chimney. A 
hot fire of shavings built in the stove will have the effect 
of making the pipe red hot at both elbows, while between 
these points the temperature will be much lower. Here 
the effect of the change in direction of the confined gases, 
by giving out heat to surrounding bodies is clearly shown. 

Another advantage which is claimed for this construc¬ 
tion is, that a less powerful draught will be necessary, 


CARE AND OPERATION 


391 


thus obviating the need of expensive and complicated 
spark arresters in the stack. The use of a simple straight 
stack will allow of large exhaust nozzles being used, 
which in turn will do away with a portion of the back 
pressure in the cylinders, thus aiding the economy of the 
device. The system of hollow stays, shown in both Figs. 
155 and 156, plays a useful part by preventing an exces¬ 
sive throwing of fire from the stack when the engine 
slips. When this occurs, the extra current of air is drawn 
into the box through these stays, and not through the bed 
of burning coals, thus avoiding the bad “tearing” of the 
fire usually met with. 

This combustion chamber, J, may be fastened into the 
boiler shell by stay-bolts, as in the ordinary firebox, or 
may have crown bars on top, or a stay-bolt connection 
with the top of the boiler shell. It could also be used 
in radial stay, or Bellepaire boilers. It should be of such 
size that it could be entered through a manhole at N for 
the purpose of repairs. This form of combustion cham¬ 
ber, it is believed, offers less mechanical objections than 
a pattern which consists of a long prolongation of the 
firebox into the boiler shell, with which there is some¬ 
times trouble on account of the extended crown sheet, 
and in addition affords much more heating surface. 

This general plan of construction has been used ex¬ 
perimentally with, it is claimed, good results, by a num¬ 
ber of investigators. Compound engines upon the Lon¬ 
don & North Western, as exemplified by the “Queen Em¬ 
press” at the Columbian Exposition, furnish a marked 
example. We would make the following criticism of this 
engine if desired for use on Western roads. A large tube 
between the firebox and the combustion chamber would 
allow a longer flame way, resulting in more complete 


392 


LOCOMOTIVE EOILERS 


combustion, and) better performance in fuel. The arch 
in some form should come higher up in the firebox than 
was the case with the “Queen Empress,” which would 
again give a longer flame way and protect the tube ends 
when the fire door is opened. 



A combustion chamber formed of a moderate pro¬ 
longation of the firebox into the boiler shell, as shown in 
Fig. 158, has given very good results, and would un¬ 
doubtedly be preferred by many to the separate combus¬ 
tion chamber. Many of the criticisms upon the use of 
combustion chambers in the past have been warranted, 
from the fact that the conditions for complete combustion 
have not been provided. Unless this is done there is no 
particular advantage in the additional flame way. Cor¬ 
rugated tubes as shown in the drawing, would increase 
the evaporative efficiency if used. The corrugations may 
be of easy curve, so that no accumulation of ash will take 
place in the tube, and the scale can be cleaned from the 
outside surfaces. 


























CARE AND OPERATION 


393 


Modifications of the ribbed tubes used abroad will also 
give good results. A combustion chamber can in many 
cases be formed by bricking up a portion of the grate 
surface, in which case an adequate air supply can be 
obtained through suitable openings in the brick work. 

The question of heating surface belongs more to the 
economical, than to the smoke preventing side of the 
question we are discussing. The following proportions 
of heating surface to grate area seem to have proved their 
value for western coals: For stationary boilers with 
draught from y 2 to inches of water 56 to 55 feet of 
heating surface in tubes and boiler shell to the square 
foot of grate area. For a draught over % inches we 
should have over 55 feet of heating surface to the square 
foot of heating area, while with locomotives the nearer we 
can reach a ratio of 80 to 1, the better the results that 
will be obtained. Many master mechanics have in the 
past made the mistake of having too large grates, which 
are hard to keep covered, and often develop more hot 
gases than the firebox and tube surface can absorb the 
heat from. 

As with many soft coals a flame way nearly twenty 
feet is needed with heavy firing, and natural draught it 
can be seen that many existing boilers of the ordinary 
tubular type are too short to give the best results in 
economical combustion. A good proportion may be con¬ 
sidered as 16 feet in length for boilers less than 54 inches 
in diameter—18 feet in length for boilers over 60 inches 
in diameter. The increase in length has of course the 
effect of increasing the heating surface, which is often too 
small. This trouble does not as a rule exist in the ordi¬ 
nary types of water tube boilers, where there is usually 
ample heating surface, but an insufficient flame way. 


394 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The class of boilers in which the most difficulty is ex¬ 
perienced in promoting successful combustion, especially 
without emission of smoke, is the upright variety, such as 
is often used in small boats, and for manufacturing pur¬ 
poses. Here the flame way is so short that it is hard to 
produce a complete combustion before the burning gases 
are extinguished by entering the tubes, which in this 
class of boilers are always small. In such construction 
it is probable that the most complete results can be 
reached by the use of some adaptation of currents of air 
forced into the firebox by means of a steam jet, which 
has the effect of throwing the air to the very center of 
the coal bed, and producing more complete combustion in 
a shorter time, and with less length of flame. The steam 
jets, it must be understood, play no part in promoting 
combustion, except by being the mechanical agents for 
supplying the necessary quantity of air. In some cases 
good results have been reached with boilers of this class 
by a judicious arrangement of firebrick deflectors, and an 
added air supply. 

Successful boilers for use in small steamboats may be 
built after the pattern of locomotive boiler shown in Fig. 
156, while a modification of the usual marine type of 
boiler for large boats may be used, embodying the method 
of furnace construction shown in Fig. 151. The princi¬ 
ples commented upon in these pages may also be suc¬ 
cessfully applied to the use of coal in house furnaces, 
stoves, and open grates with a marked economy of fuel. 

As was stated in the commencement of these notes, the 
writer makes but little claim to original discovery in the 
matter of coal burning, but merely notes down results of 
methods and experiment covering a long period. As the 
different constructions noted have nearly all been sue- 


care and operation 


395 


cessfully used, with economical results, the fact seems 
proved that considerable progress has been made towards 
efficient, economical, and smokeless combustion. There 
is no reason why the results arrived at by the adoption of 
well known devices, and principles, should not be dupli¬ 
cated anywhere under the same conditions, and the effi¬ 
ciency of the average steam-making plant for all purposes 
much improved. 

THE GRADE OF FUEL TO USE IN LOCOMO¬ 
TIVES. 

One of the most important considerations in connection 
with the question of fuel economy is the selection of the 
proper grade of fuel. It must be fairly uniform in qual¬ 
ity, or it will be impossible to use it economically. A 
front end arrangement, or grates suitable for one grade 
of coal, may be entirely unsuited for another, and the 
fireman cannot obtain good results where the grade of 
fuel is constantly changing. 

Ordinarily it is not possible for the railroads to secure 
a run of mine coal. A 5 or 6 in. screen is used at most 
of the mines, and the larger coal is used for commercial 
purposes. The mines can usually insist on this, because 
the railroads can secure a long haul on the superior 
grade of coal. On the other hand the mine operators are 
anxious to make contracts with the railroad company to 
insure keeping the mines in operation during the summer 
months, when the commercial requirements are light. 
During the dull period the work is usually confined 
largely to the making of headings, and the opening of 
new rooms, and in getting things in shape to be pushed 
when the heavy demand comes. The railroads thus often 
secure a better grade of coal during the summer months 


396 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


than during the remaining part of the year. While there 
are instances where it might be in the interests of eco¬ 
nomical locomotive performance to confine the buying of 
coal to certain mines, yet the development of the district, 
and the building up of traffic along a certain part of the 
line might make it advisable to secure coal from other 
mines. While the railroads usually do not get the best 
grade of coal, they pay less for it. Roughly, the mine 
operators get from io to 40 per cent, more for commer¬ 
cial coal than for railroad coal. 

While the above considerations are important they 
should not be allowed to overshadow the desirability and 
importance of buying the coal on a heat value basis. 
There is a great difference in the heat value of different 
coals, and while the subject has been given very little at¬ 
tention by most of the railroads, it is of prime import¬ 
ance. It is of interest to note that as a result of coal 
tests made at St. Louis by the United States Geological 
Survey, the Government is purchasing coal for about 
forty departmental buildings at Washington, and for 
public buildings throughout the country on a simple spec¬ 
ification, the prime elements in which fix the amount of 
ash and moisture in anthracite at seven per cent. Pre¬ 
miums are paid for any decrease in the ash content up 
to two per cent, above the standard, and corresponding 
penalties are fixed for any increase in ash above the 
standard. Better and more complete specifications, but 
more difficult for the dealer to fulfill, have been fixed by 
a few of the largest manufacturing and power concerns 
of the country, in which penalty and premium are paid 
not only on account of ash and moisture content, but also 
on the basis of the British thermal units as specified in 
the contract. 


WEIGHING COAL ISSUED TO LOCOMOTIVES. 

(From the American Engineer and Railroad Journal, 
April, 1908.) 

There are several methods by which the coal delivered 
to the locomotive tenders may be measured with more or 
less accuracy. Unfortunately most roads have several 
types of coaling stations, built from time to time, some 
of which measure or weigh the coal issued, while others 
do not. 

Unquestionably the greatest gains which may be made 
in fuel economy are in its use on the locomotive. The 
enginemen, however, cannot be watched closely and spur¬ 
red on to better efforts, unless a careful check is kept on 
the coal consumption, and on those things which effect 
it. This cannot be done unless some means is provided 
for measuring the coal issued to each engine, with a fair 
degree of accuracy. 

Under proper supervision there seems to be little ques¬ 
tion but what the average fireman could save one scoop¬ 
ful of coal in every ten. The simplest method of measur¬ 
ing the coal is the use of the jib crane and bucket sys¬ 
tem, or where “buggies” are used. The average weight 
of coal which one of these buckets or buggies will hold 
can easily be determined, and care can be taken to see 
that they are loaded uniformly each time. As a large 
percentage of existing coaling stations are of the above 
types, the practice on the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. 
Louis Railway, under the direction of George M. Carpen¬ 
ter, fuel inspector, may be of interest. 

397 


398 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The standard sizes of buggies, holding two and three 
tons of run of mine coal each, are in use. It is the duty 
of the foreman at each chute to see that these are filled 
to capacity, and a report is made to the fuel inspector 
each day as to the initial and number of the car from 
which each buggy is loaded, and the number of the engine 
to which it is delivered. The fuel inspector can there¬ 
fore check the weight of each car as against the mine 
weights, can easily find what kind of coal was used on 
any- engine, and in case of poor coal can at once take the 
matter up with the inspector at the mine from which the 
coal was shipped. 

The tanks on all engines are graduated for each ton, 
the graduation being stenciled on the leg of the tank. 
This was done by weighing into a buggy one ton of coal, 
dropping it into the tender, leveling it off to a uniform 
depth, and making a mark on the leg. This was repeated 
for each ton until the tank was filled level full. When 
an engine arrives at the roundhouse, at the end of a run, 
a man shovels the coal down from the sides and back of 
the tank, levels it up and marks on a coal ticket the 
'‘pounds on arrival.” To this is added the amount of 
coal taken. It is thus possible to determine with a close 
degree of accuracy the amount of coal used on each trip, 
and with very little extra expense. 

Another of the older types of coaling stations which 
allows the coal to be measured, is the low trestle type, with 
different size pockets, into which the coal is shoveled 
from the cars. This type of station does not permit the 
use of the self-clearing cars, and is becoming obsolete, 
but where it is in use, the coal can be measured quite ac¬ 
curately if the pockets are properly calibrated. 

With the large overhead storage pockets the problem 


CARE AND OPERATION 


399 


becomes a more difficult one. The scheme has been tried 
of suspending the entire pocket, and introducing a weigh¬ 
ing dynamometer, but it is of course necessary to have 
the pocket hang plumb in order to get accurate results; 
a wind, or an eccentric loading interferes with this. 

On the Santa Fe, a Fuel department has been organ¬ 
ized, and placed under the direction of the general store¬ 
keeper. A fuel supervisor has been appointed on each 
grand division, who appoints, and is responsible for the 
work of all employees engaged exclusively in the receiv¬ 
ing, storing, delivering of, and accounting for all fuel. 
He also receives and compiles all reports from the fuel 
stations, and makes such reports as may be necessary to 
the auditing or other departments. 

Fuel inspectors (about one to each two divisions) re¬ 
port to the fuel supervisor. These inspectors see that 
capable men are placed in charge at the fuel stations, both 
day and night. They are expected to keep in close touch 
with conditions at the various stations, and to take such 
steps as may be necessary to insure the economical 
handling of fuel, and to prevent waste. They see that 
coal chute repairs are promptly and properly made, and 
that the coal chute pockets are properly marked to de¬ 
termine as closely as possible the actual amount of coal 
issued. They instruct the coal chute men with regard 
to overloading the tenders, and also as to the method of 
making out the daily reports. They should attempt, in 
conjunction with the engineer, to reduce the issues of 
fuel as much as possible, by keeping in personal touch 
with the firemen. They are expected to ride the dif¬ 
ferent engines, instruct the firemen as to the proper 
methods of firing, and report any mechanical defects. To 
secure the best results, they are furnished with a daily 


400 


LOCOMOTIVE EOILERS 


record of the operation of each coaling station, and also 
of the fuel performance of each engine. 

Each fuel station is in charge of a foreman. He must 
not only see that the fuel is properly unloaded and stored, 
but must measure all the fuel issued and make out the 
fuel tickets. He is also responsible for the proper load¬ 
ing of the tenders. 


EDUCATION OF FIREMEN. 

The following excellent article on this very important 
subject is reproduced from the April, 1908, issue of the 
American Engineer & Railroad Journal: 

“What is to be expected— 

When there is only one traveling engineer or 
fireman to from 400 to 1,500 miles of road. 

When green firemen are placed on an engine 
without preliminary instruction as to their work, 
and are left to shift largely for themselves. 

When the traveling engineer or fireman is an 
ex-engineer who was graduated from firing so 
long ago that his recollections of it are mellowed 
and softened by age. 

When a traveling engineer or fireman has 
grown so portly that he cannot fire more than a 
few minutes before he is tuckered out—even if 
he has not a <( biled ,} shirt on. 

When most roads do not furnish the firemen 
with any printed instructions as to their duties, 
and the proper method of firing, but often rely 
upon an inefficient force of traveling instructors 
who, in some instances are entirely unsuited for 
this work. 


care and operation 


401 


When absolutely no record is kept of the coal 
performance of the different crews—in order 
that the poor firemen may be located and fol¬ 
lowed up; or if one is kept it is not issued until 
from 20 to 90 days after the end of the month 
and is ancient history before it comes to light. 

When coal performance records entirely dis¬ 
regard the effect of poor dispatching, and condi¬ 
tions not under the control of the engine crew. 

When the amount of fuel issued is oftentimes 
guessed at by poorly paid and sometimes ig¬ 
norant hostlers—not always proof against a 
good cigar. 

When the duties of the traveling engineer or 
fireman often require him to spend the greater 
part of his time in connection with office work. 

When the fireman himself is not ambitious, and 
does not take a proper interest in his work—but 
what can be expected under some of the con¬ 
ditions mentioned above? 

Traveling Engineers or Firemen .—Investigation shows 
that about two-thirds of the railroads have no special 
courses of instruction, or printed matter, to guide the en- 
ginemen in the economical use of fuel, but depend en¬ 
tirely upon the traveling engineers, or firemen, to in¬ 
struct the men. This is all well enough if these men 
have been properly selected and are the right kind of 
men; if there are plenty of them, and if they are not 
loaded down with a lot of other duties which interfere 
with their riding on the engines, and instructing the men. 
Unfortunately these ideal conditions do not pertain on 
many roads. 


402 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


In discussing the qualifications of the road foreman of 
engines, D. R. McBain, of the Michigan Central, spoke 
as follows before the last meeting of the Traveling En¬ 
gineers’ Association: 

“Usually men are selected for these positions (road 
foremen of engines and traveling engineers), who are 
successful engineers, who are skillful men, and who are 
thought by their superiors able to impart such informa¬ 
tion as their success and skill would denote, to the rank 
and file of enginemen, where needed. The tremendously 
skillful man is not necessarily the most successful, as he 
is likely to give his men the idea once expressed in the 
hearing of the writer by a conductor who was about to 
start on his first trip in that capacity, that he drew the 
pay, and what he said ‘must go, right or wrong.’ A 
better man for the position of road foreman of engines 
or traveling engineer, is the man who will do his best 
to impart to his men such useful information as he is 
sure of, and discuss with them any other point, and not 
make a decision until he knows. 

“Success and skill are not all that is essential in the 
road foreman, or traveling engineer. Good judgment, 
a cool head, a temperate tongue and a ‘thick skin’ are 
perhaps the best assets he can have, as without them he 
is not likely to possess the art of ‘approaching’ in a sat¬ 
isfactory manner, the rank and file of the enginemen 
with their various dispositions.” 

In addition to being a good instructor, and a good 
“mixer,” the traveling engineer should preferably be a 
young engineer who has had a first-class record as a 
fireman, and can get down and fire, when necessary. The 
remark has been made that if a test for traveling en¬ 
gineers was given, similar to that which President Roose- 


care and operation 


403 


velt arranged for the army officers in connection with 
riding, equally good results might be brought about. 

How can we expect to secure first-class traveling en¬ 
gineers, with the above qualifications* if the railroads are 
not willing to pay them more than they could make on 
the first-class runs? 

Literatyre .—About one-third of the railroads use other 
measures for instructing the enginemen in the economi¬ 
cal use of fuel, in addition to the instruction given by 
the traveling engineers. This consists in some cases of 
printed instructions as to the economical use of fuel, 
which are issued to each engineman; in some instances 
bulletins are sent out from time to time; in still other 
cases fuel meetings are held. 


FUEL OIL TICKET. 


Form 1122-C Standard. 

Santa Fe N® 

39202 

M 

FUEL OIL TICKET. 

Foreman’s No_ _ 

_Station_ 

—190 


FOR MIXED AND WORK SERVICE ONLY. 

Initials_Engine_Train_ 

From_-To- 


Reading after taking__—Gallons 

Reading before taking_Gallons 

Quantity taken_Gallons 


.Fuel Foreman. 


Engineer. 

.Fireman. 






















404 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Only a few roads issue instruction books. On two 
roads, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Great 
Northern, these books are quite elaborate. They include 
a section on economical firing, which treats of the theory 
of combustion and the proper methods of firing under 
varying conditions; a chapter on economical boiler feed¬ 
ing and one on the economical use of steam. Other roads 
furnish booklets, which may be purchased upon the open 
market, such as “Information,” by George M. Carpen¬ 
ter, fuel expert of the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. 
Louis Ry., or “Fuel Economy,” by George H. Baker. 

Several roads issue bulletins on fuel economy from 
time to time. One of the most successful bulletins of 
this kind is known as “Circular Letter No. 550,” issued 
a number of years ago by R. Quayle, superintendent of 
motive power of the Chicago & North Western Railway. 
At that time the question of proper firing was attracting 
a great deal of attention, and different roads were issuing 
instructions of various kinds as to the proper use of 
fuel. Mr. Quayle prepared a letter in which he called 
attention to the necessity for the cooperation between 
the engineer and fireman, and followed this with what is 
known as a chapter of “don’ts.” The result was a 
marked increase in efficiency, and economy. These 
“don’ts” are as follows: 

Don't think because you are only one engineer or fire¬ 
man, that what you do does not amount to much. It is 
the little drops of water that make the mighty ocean, and 
the little grains of sand that make up this earth of ours; 
so each individual, in the aggregate, can do a great deal. 
If each engine crew saves one-quarter of a ton or five 
hundred pounds of coal, this on a thousand locomotives 
would result in a daily saving of two hundred and fifty 
tons, or, in round figures, $157,000 a year. 


care and operation 


405 


Don't neglect being at roundhouse in ample time to 
examine the firing tools on the engine before leaving the 
roundhouse. See that your ashpan, grates and flue- 
sheets are in good condition to make the run. 

Don't fill the boiler full of water as soon as you get ? 
out of the house. Leave a space so the injector can be' 
worked to prevent popping, while air pump exhaust is 
fanning the fire, pumping air to make the terminal air 
brake test. If you do this your fire will be in better 
condition to pull out with. The noises of open pop pre¬ 
vent trainmen from locating leaks. 

Don't forget to start the lubricator a few minutes 
before leaving a terminal. Set it to feed regularly. The 
proper lubrication of valves and cylinders saves coal. 

Don't forget when starting trains, to do so carefully, 
thus preventing damage to drawbars and draft rigging. 
By so doing you will save serious delays to your own, 
as well as other trains. All delays mean extra fuel con¬ 
sumption to make up lost time. 

Don't neglect using the blow-off cock, as it keeps the 
boiler clean and water in good condition, and insures 
better circulation in boiler. Result: Better steaming 
engine and a saving in coal. 

Don't allow the engine to slip. This is an unnecessary 
waste of coal, wears out tires and rails, causes great 
damage to pins, axles and running gear, and generally 
results in spoiling a fire. 

Don't pull out of a station with a train (after engine 
has stood for a while, and fire was allowed to get low) 
without first giving the fireman a chance to build up the 
fire. The time lost waiting to do this will save coal, 
and can better be made up before reaching the next sta¬ 
tion. Remember this when you get a time order. 


406 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Don't leave the reverse lever down in corner longer 
than necessary when pulling out of stations. No rule 
can be made to govern how the throttle and reverse lever 
should be used. This must be acquired by practice, and 
observing the performance of the engine. Bring the 
lever up gradually, as speed is acquired. The lever 
hooked well towards center of quadrant, with throttle 
well open, usually gives better results than using the 
throttle to govern the speed. Up to five years ago we 
considered it good practice with our smaller power to 
run with wide open throttle, and as short a point of cut¬ 
off as possible consistent with weight of train, but in 
our heavier and larger engines we find that it is better 
at many times to throttle the engine. Particular atten¬ 
tion is called to all wide firebox type locomotives. The 
engineer can permit the reverse lever in these engines to 
remain low in the quadrant when starting from a sta¬ 
tion, for a greater length of time than with the other 
types of locomotives, without pulling the fire or losing 
steam. When you are running on short time, it would 
be good judgment for the engineer to take advantage 
of this when pulling out from a station. In this engi¬ 
neers will use their best judgment. 

Don't put four, or five, or more shovels-full of coal into 
the fire at once. One or two shovels-full will give better 
results, and these two should not be thrown in the same 
spot. It is good practice to fire on one side of the box 
at one time, and the next time on the other side of the 
box, in order that the bright fire on one side may take 
up the gases from the fresh coal on the other side. This 
will reduce the smoke and give more steam. 

Always fire as light as possible consistent with your 
work. Very heavy firing will make your flues and stay- 


care and operation 


407 


bolts leak, and in time will crack your fire-box sheets. 
The reason for this is that when you have a very heavy 
fire, the air will not pass up through it readily, and the 
gases pass off, because there is not sufficient oxygen to 
unite with them to produce combustion, and as the gases 
must get "ir from somewhere, the air is then pulled 
through the fire-door, causing the chilling of flues and 
sheets as referred to above. 

Don’t allow steam to escape at pops unnecessarily. Fre¬ 
quent blowing off at pops shows improper judgment, 
and implies that the engine crew is not practicing econ¬ 
omy. Tests have demonstrated that lb. per second 
or 15 lbs. per minute is wasted. This amounts to about 
one ordinary scoopful, and in most cases may as well 
have been thrown on the ground as into the fire-box. 
There are only 133 scoops-full in a ton of coal, so you can 
see that you would only have to have your pops open 
one hundred and thirty-three minutes in a whole day in 
order to throw a ton of coal away. 

Don’t open the fire-box door to prevent steam blow¬ 
ing off at pops when engine is working: dropping damp¬ 
ers is a better practice. The supply of air is cut off, 
and combustion is partially suspended. When engine 
stops blowing off, open dampers again, before putting in 
coal. This method keeps fire in better condition and 
saves coal. You have no doubt noticed that on Class R 
locomotives, when working hard on a hill, you have to 
shut your dampers in order to keep your fire from turn¬ 
ing over. This is because the exhaust pulls too much air 
up through the grates, and causes your coal to be too 
active, and to prevent this activity of coal as well as 
increased combustion which follows, we consider it a 
good thing to drop your dampers, as per above. 


408 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


Don't insist on having the maximum steam pressure 
with pops opening occasionally when handling light 
trains, when less pressure will handle the train on time, 
thus avoiding the opening of pops. 

Don't forget, when engine is shut off for stations, to 
drop your dampers, opening the fire-box door slightly if 
necessary, and using the blower to carry off the black 
smoke. 

Don't blame the engine or coal, if engine is not steam¬ 
ing properly, before you have ascertained whether or not 
both of you are doing your duty. Talk it over; see 
if injector is not supplying more water than is being 
used, or that fireman is not firing too light or too heavy. 
Heavy firing is responsible for more poor steaming en¬ 
gines than the lighter method. You all know some en¬ 
gine crews have better success than others with the same 
engines and conditions. Think a little: there must be 
some cause for this. 

Don't wait until you get the signal to pull out before 
building up the fire. This should be done gradually until 
the proper thickness has been reached. A good fire to 
start with is essential to maintain the proper steam pres¬ 
sure, while engine is working hard getting train under 
way. Afterwards distribute the coal evenly on sides, ends 
and corners. Do this systematically, keeping in mind 
where you have placed the last shovelful, thus avoiding 
getting holes in fire, and prevent piling up coal all in one 
place. Endeavor to keep the steam pressure uniform, 
with as little black smoke as possible. Experience has 
taught that engines with draft appliances properly ad¬ 
justed require very little coal in center of firebox. 

Don't permit the water to get so high in boiler that 
it is carried over into the valves and cylinders. This 


care and operation 


409 


usually occurs when pulling out of stations, and the 
water carries off the oil, which not only results in cut 
valves and cylinders, but the extra friction damages the 
entire valve motion, to the detriment of the power of 
engine and the coal record. 

Don't gauge the amount of water an engine will safely 
carry by water coming out of stack. Keep it low enough 
to insure dry steam being used, because moist steam has 
the same effect as water. Usually one-half glass, or two 
gauges give best results. Be careful, however, that when 
ascending a grade, and you are about to pitch over the 
other side, that you have sufficient water to keep your 
crown-sheet thoroughly covered. If your custom has 
been to carry high water, try less and note results in bet¬ 
ter handling of tonnage, also saving in coal and oil. 

Don't neglect to take advantage of your excess steam 
before your engine is about to pop off, by making a 
heater of your injector, blowing steam back into the tank 
to warm the cold water, but avoid getting it so hot that 
the injector will not lift the water. By doing this you 
will keep your engine from blowing off at pops, when 
standing at stations after the boiler is filled up. You 
have all tried warming the water in the tank to help a 
poor steaming engine, with good results. What is good 
for a poor steaming engine will surely help a good 
steaming engine do better. Try it, and you will find that 
it will not only save work for the fireman, but will make 
a better coal record for the engine crew, besides keep¬ 
ing the tank from sweating, which you are aware spoils 
paint. 

Don't think the fireman alone is to blame for your coal 
record. The best and most economical fireman cannot 
make a showing with an engineer who supplies more wa- 


410 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


ter to the boiler than is being used, and who shuts injector 
off only when boiler is pumped full. The proper handling 
of the injector is one of the most important matters in sav¬ 
ing coal. Feed water to boiler, according to demands. If 
on through train, keep water level as possible. If on 
way freight or switch trains, lose a little water between 
stations. Fill up again while drifting into, standing or 
switching at station. The advantages of supplying less 
water than is being used between stations are: It re¬ 
quires less coal to keep up steam pressure when running; 
also leaves a space so injector can be worked to avoid 
pops opening, and heavier fire can also be maintained to 
do switching, without the possibility of the fire being 
pulled. 

Don't pull out, after making a stop, with injectors 
working. The cool water introduced during period throt¬ 
tle was shut off is put in circulation throughout the 
boiler, and pointer on gauge drops back from five to 
twenty-five pounds. The fireman must then fire heavier 
to regain the lost steam, and naturally will use more coal. 
This condition exists also when engine has gone down 
grade with throttle shut, or slightly open. Shut the in¬ 
jector off before opening the throttle. If this is not your 
practice, try it and note the difference. 

Don't wait for the pops to open, and use this as a sig¬ 
nal to put on the injector. Keep an eye on the air gauge, 
steam gauge, and water glass. You all know this can be 
done without detracting your attention from the track 
ahead. A look for an instant every mile or two will keep 
you informed, and is a good habit. Doing this will also 
keep you posted on air pressure, and may avoid difficul¬ 
ties should the air pump stop. The fireman should also 
keep an eye on the water glass, as the engineer is some- 


care and operation 


411 


times compelled to keep the injector at work to prevent 
the engine blowing off. When glass is full the fire¬ 
man should fire lighter, to give the engineer a chance to 
shut off the injector, and not have engine blow off. How¬ 
ever, this condition should only exist when injector can¬ 
not be worked fine enough to just supply amount 
used. This sometimes occurs when card time is slow, 
or on down grade, or when running with light train. 

Don't put too much coal under the arch of engines 
with sloping fire-boxes, because these engines naturally 
pull the coal ahead, which results in forward section of 
grates becoming stuck and clinkered over, and fire is 
pulled in back end of fire-box. Experience and obser¬ 
vation will teach you to put most of the coal in back end 
of fire-box. 

Don't think engine having two fire-box doors requires 
twice the quantity of coal it would if it had but one. The 
extra door is for the purpose of distributing the coal more 
evenly over the grate surface, with less effort on the part 
of the fireman. 

Don't shovel large chunks of coal into fire-box, be¬ 
cause you find them on the tank. The coal house men 
have instructions to break it the size of an apple. If not 
properly broken, report it to road foreman of engines 
or master mechanic, instead of fellow engineers or fire¬ 
men, but don’t think it a hardship to break some occa¬ 
sionally. Better break it than to throw in large chunks. 
They are foundations for clinkers. 

Don't expect the fireman to fire the engine with one or 
two scoops-full to each fire, and also ring the bell for 
highway crossings and stations. Some engineers expect 
this. If engine is equipped with an air bell-ringer, get 
into the habit of starting the bell-ringer when blowing 


412 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the whistle. By so doing, the habit will become as fixed, 
as whistling for crossings and stations. Besides, it is just 
as important. Remember the engineer is responsible. 

Don’t put in a heavy fire about the time the engine is 
shut off for a station, or down-grade. The heavy cloud 
of black smoke is evidence the engine crew is not work¬ 
ing in harmony or practicing economy. If on train that 
stops at all stations, the fireman should guard against 
it and learn when to stop firing. He will be governed 
by grade, service, and weather conditions. If train does 
not make all station stops, the engineer should keep the 
fireman informed of intended stops. 

Don’t forget that different qualities of coal, and dif¬ 
ferent makes of grate used, govern the shaking of grates. 
Coal that fills up and clinkers, requires more attention 
than the better grade. The object is to keep the grates 
free, so the proper amount of air can be admitted. 

Don’t neglect cleaning your fire on trains that are long 
hours on the road. Make use of the first opportunity. 
You will get better results with less labor and coal, and 
avoid leaky flues. Better clean out a small amount two 
or three times, than not clean it at all. 

Don’t take coal or water oftener than necessary, as it 
requires an extra amount of coal to again get a heavy 
train in motion, especially on a grade. Good judgment 
is required, in order not to run short before getting to 
next coal chute, or water tank. Where possible, take 
water only from tank containing good water. 

Don’t forget that leaks in the air pressure are being 
kept up by an equal amount of steam pressure. As it 
takes coal to make steam, air leakage means a waste of 
coal. Keep apparatus on your engine tight, and insist 
on trainmen doing their part. 


care and operation 


413 


Don’t try to put more coal on tank than will lay on it 
securely. All coal dropped off by overloading is wasted; 
also keep coal from falling out of gangway when run¬ 
ning. This may be only a little each day, but it all 
counts against your coal records, and besides it looks 
badly when strewn along the track. You cannot save 
coal by the ton; it must be in pounds, which in time 
make tons. 

Don’t forget to make an intelligent report on your 
work slip, on arrival at roundhouse. Consult your fire¬ 
man in regard to any defect that has come to his notice, 
especially with grates, dampers, or firing tools. 

Don’t neglect reporting the pop valves ground in, 
when leaking, or when they blow back eight or ten 
pounds before seating. Also report leaky piston rod, and 
valve stem packings, or if cylinder packing, or valves 
are blowing. All these leaks draw on the coal pile un¬ 
necessarily; it takes coal to generate the wasted steam. 
This also applies to leaky steam heat appliances, cylinder 
cocks, etc. 

Don’t neglect looking at coal report each month, to 
see how you stand in relation to others in same service 
with whom you are comparable. The other crews get 
the same pay you do, and it should be your aim to be as 
economical with both fuel and supplies as they are, other 
things being equal. Keep posted, and be with the 
average. It will be to your credit and interest some 
time; therefore aim to be at the top. 

Don’t think when coal report shows you using only 
two pounds more per ioo-ton mile than other crews in 
same service, it is close enough. This means two pounds 
more used for every mile you hauled ioo tons; or an¬ 
other way, two pounds for every ioo tons hauled one 


414 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


mile. Figure this up, and you will find in hauling 100 
tons ioo miles, a difference of 2,000 pounds, or one ton. 
This method of showing up the individual record is more 
equitable to all, than on basis of miles run per ton of 
coal. 

Don't think after reading over this chapter of DONT’S 
you should save coal to the detriment of the service. 
The actual amount required to make up time, keep on 
time, or handle tonnage, is not what we are trying to 
save; it is the waste. You will notice, the proper method 
of handling the engine, to the extent of economical use 
of fuel only has been considered. 


FUEL MEETINGS. 

On several roads, fuel meetings are held from time to 
time. On the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, these coal 
meetings are held at the various division points three or 
four times a year. In addition to the engineers, fire¬ 
men, and mechanical officials, the local operating officials 
are also present. The men are encouraged to express 
their views, and criticize methods, and these meetings 
have been instrumental in bringing about splendid re¬ 
sults, not only as concerns the work of the engine crew, 
but also in connection with the operation of trains. On 
another road in the Middle West, the assistant superin¬ 
tendents of motive power recently went over the divisions 
where they were best acquainted, and hired halls, 
and talked to the enginemen on the economical use of 
coal. 


LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 


The possibilities of fuel saving are probably greater 
after the coal has been placed upon the locomotive ten¬ 
der than at any other point in its journey from the mine 
to the ashpan. Considering a great majority of the loco¬ 
motives in this country, which are easily within the capa¬ 
bilities of hand firing, and placing the limit at possibly 
two tons of coal per hour burned, we know that there is 
an enormous amount of waste, and in most cases need¬ 
less waste, going on all of the time. 

The qualifications of a good fireman are, first, intelli¬ 
gence or brightness, and, secondly, physical strength and 
endurance. In a great majority of cases no large amount 
of strength is required for proper firing, in itself, and 
that factor enters into this problem, the same as it does 
in all similar lines of activity, only when the action is 
constant and continued for a long period of time. Even 
then we find that the best firemen are not usually those 
who can raise the heaviest weight, but rather the men 
of moderate strength and great endurance. They are 
the fellows who fire properly and keep everlastingly at 
it. Your strong man will handle more coal and work 
harder; will be exhausted and require a longer period of 
rest, all because he has performed much useless labor 
and incidentally has needlessly thrown away a large 
amount of valuable coal. Comparisons between the 
small wiry chap, who uses his head, and the big, strong 
fellow, who heaves coal, are present at every division 
point in this country, and almost universally result in 
415 


416 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


the favor of the former, provided, of course, he has been 
given the proper instruction. 

A few of the companies are furnishing their men with 
literature, going more or less fully into the theory of 
combustion, and giving detailed instructions as to the 
proper method of firing, and still fewer have followed 
this up with a thorough course of individual instruction, 
but a very great majority have done neither, and prac¬ 
tically allow a new fireman to learn his business as best 
he can from his associates. 

On divisions where the proper grade of men can be 
obtained and the work of instruction is systematically and 
conscientiously followed out, most gratifying results in 
the shape of improved fuel records, increased interest in 
the work, and a contented and loyal set of firemen, are 
possible. Upon the other hand where either a low grade 
of men is all that is available, or where the work of in¬ 
struction is done in a half-hearted or slip-shod way by 
incompetent instructors, the education of the fireman is 
bound to be a failure in all ways. There will always, of 
course, be individual cases that it will be impossible to 
do anything with. These will usually be found to be con¬ 
fined to the man with a strong back and a weak head 
(which some one has facetiously stated should be the 
qualifications of a fireman), who can get over the road 
because of his strength, but cases of good firemen quit¬ 
ting because they could not stand the work, which was 
easily within their strength if they had been properly in¬ 
structed, are not bv any means uncommon throughout 
the country, and it is this feature that causes the great¬ 
est regret that more attention is not being given to the 
subject of education. If you cannot get firemen of suffi¬ 
cient intelligence it is unfortunate, but if you don’t keep 


care and operation 


417 


those who are capable of learning, there is certainly a 
grave fault somewhere. 

The lines that should be followed in educating the 
firemen are covered in a general way in a previous sec¬ 
tion. As far as the actual placing of the coal on the 
fire is concerned they consist very largely in convincing 
the men, both by sound reasoning and actual example, 
that it will pay, and pay well, to scatter well broken coal 
in small amounts on various parts of the grate in suc¬ 
cession, with such an interval between charges as will 
make it necessary to again cover the first point as soon 
as the whole grate area has been gone over. This, of 
course, with the ordinary locomotive, means continu¬ 
ous, but in most cases, leisurely, work and gives no time 
for the seat box or anything else while the locomotive is 
working at full power. Opportunities for the needed 
rest will be given on the down grade stretches, the stops 
for water, the waits at meeting points or for orders, and 
the shut-offs for signals, flags, etc. This is the way fire¬ 
men should fire and the way an intelligent educated fire¬ 
man will fire, provided he is not expected to take care 
of ten or fifteen other things at the same time. He can¬ 
not and will not do it if he has to break all his coal; 
if he has to climb up and shovel it down from the back 
of the tender every half hour or so; if he is expected 
to see every signal; if he has to clean out the ashpan 
at every stop for water; if he has to work against an 
injector that “forgets;” or a couple of extra notches on 
the quadrant; if he is given dirt and slack for coal; if 
the competitive coal records are based on the guesses 
of an ignorant coal chute hand; if the records are posted 
six weeks after they are made; if an engine rated at 
2,000 tons is habitually given 2,200 tons, etc., etc. 


418 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 


The education of firemen will pay if it is given a 
chance, but there is no use in teaching a man to do a 
thing properly and then arranging conditions so that it 
will be impossible for him to do it that way. Give a 
fireman a small shovel, not over 15 lbs. capacity, an 
automatic door opener and decent coal; teach him how 
to fire and if he is not loaded down with other duties 
and handicaps you will be surprised how little coal he 
will burn per ton mile or per car mile, as well as in the 
reduction of engine failures due to leaky flues and fire¬ 
boxes. 

Of course, there are many conditions affecting the 
efficiency of the firemen, over which the motive power 
department has no control, and many others over which 
no one has control, all of which tend to neutralize the 
value of the properly educated fireman. But there are 
enough which can be controlled to make it very ad¬ 
visable to accompany a scheme of training firemen with 
a course of education and improvement along other lines. 
It is not an impossible condition to find master mechan¬ 
ics and even higher officials who are also in need of a 
little educating in things which directly concern the fire¬ 
men and the fuel bill. 

There is one condition, however, which no amount of 
training or education will improve, and that is a loco¬ 
motive of a size and power which no man can shovel 
coal enough into, properly or improperly, to develop its 
capacity. This would also include those locomotives 
which are capable of hand firing, only when everything 
is in perfect shape, and fall down under ordinary ad¬ 
verse conditions. At the present time there is no very 
large number of locomotives running in this country 
which would come strictly under this head and if we had 


care and operation 


419 


only to consider these, there would be no great demand 
for mechanical stokers. There are, however, a large 
number of big engines which, from causes beyond the 
mechanical department’s control, and seemingly inca¬ 
pable of correction, a few of which have been mentioned, 
are not able to give their full power with hand firing. 

At some points it is impossible to get men for firemen 
who are of a sufficiently high order of intelligence to be 
able to learn to fire properly and economically. This may 
be due to a poor source of supply; to a rush of business 
compelling the acceptance of any one, or to working con¬ 
ditions and surroundings, which no self-respecting man 
will put up with. No matter what may be the cause of 
their presence, such men will not be able to develop 
the full power of a big locomotive, over a division of 
average length. Again it may be very desirable, and 
possibly profitable to use a grade of fuel which is so 
high in ash and impurities as to compel a man to get it 
into the fire-box as fast as he can, in order to have time 
to shake the grates. He certainly cannot properly de¬ 
velop the full power of the locomotive under these con¬ 
ditions, even if the fuel is capable of doing it at all. 
Thus, there .are four conditions which are beyond cor¬ 
rection by the proper education and training of the fire¬ 
man, and even beyond correction by the' mechanical de¬ 
partment. These are: Very large engines, operating 
conditions making proper firing impossible; low grade of 
men, and use of low grade fuels. Under such conditions 
the only remedy would seem to be the mechanical stoker, 
reference to which has already been made in another 
portion of this book. 





INDEX. 


LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS—CARE AND OPER¬ 

ATION. 

A 

Air, composition of ..,... 129 

quantity required for combination.39-131 

spaces under grates .4 2_ 43 

velocity of, under grates . 39 

American pressure gauge.224-225 

pop valves (muffled) . 237-239 

Areas of segments .201-202 

Ashpan . 37 - 43 - 45 - 5 2 ' i6 ° 

dampers, regulation of . 4 

ratio of opening to area of flues. 42 

ratio of opening to cylinder volume.42 

Automatic water detector..325 to 329 

B 

Back pressure. 10 

one cause of... .27 to 33 

reduction of . 35 _ 3 ^ 

Bates fire-box door . 55 t0 5 & 

fire-box door, advantages claimed for it. 58 

fire-box door, air deflector of ..... • 5^“57 

Blower, construction and operation of. 8 

how to use. 5"6 

Boiler, Belpaire type. I 73 _I 74 

bending strains ... 348-349 

check valves.277-316-317 

i 

























11 


INDEX 


Boiler—Continued. 

explosions .349 to 35 1 

elastic limit in . 3 2 9 “ 33 ° 

head-dished.. 2 °3 

horse power of .. • .. 342 

new designs of.203 to 2 °5 

plates, punched and drilled.181 to 184 

proper method of feeding water to.262 to 265 

pressure, decline in.330 to 334 

repairs and cleaning. 345 to 347 

requirements of a good steamer. 79 

rivets, diameter and pitch of.181-183-184 

right time to feed water to. 263-264 

stays and braces.160-170-198 to 202 

theories for drafting.46-47 

types of, for locomotives ..160-174 

vital organs of.160 

water tube locomotive.34 2 to 344 

what to do in case of foaming. 5 

Brewer pneumatic door opener. 53 to 55 

Briquettes for fuel. 356 to 359 

C 

Calculating strength of stayed surfaces.198 to 202 

Canby draft regulator.19-22 

Carbon, heating value of one lb.130 

Care of locomotive jackets.362-363 

Cinders, cause of piling up in front end. 43 

Check valve .277 

causes of sticking.3 1 6-317 

Hancock pattern .288-289-311 

Thom’s.313 to 316 































INDEX 


111 


Goal, analysis of soft coal .130-370 

grade used in mechanical stokers.64-75-76 

labor expended in burning one ton. 53 

proper methods of burning.367 to 395 

quantity burned per sq. ft. of grate area per hour. 38 

weighing it to locomotives.397 to 399 

Combustion .*. 31 

effect of too rapid a rate.131 

Crane pop valves.239 to 242 

action of.240 

how to adjust.241 

muffled .242 

Crosby check valve..232 

steam gauge.221 to 223 

pop valves.233 

action of . 235-236 

directions for setting. 236 

muffled .237 

principles of .234-235 

Crown bars . 169-171 

sheet, Belpaire.• • • .. I 73 _I 74 

methods of bracing.169 

D 

Dampers, (ash pan) .36 to 40 

'how to regulate . 4 ~ 39‘74 

area of openings . 4 ° 

results of closing at stations .40-41 

results of tests for regulation.41-42 

in diaphragm.23-25-28 

Details to be learned . 1 

Detroit lubricator No. 21, triple feed.113 t0 120 

automatic chest plugs.116 
































IV 


INDEX 


Detroit lubricator No. 21—Continued. 

directions for connecting. n6to 118 

operating.114 to 116 

helpful hints.118 to 120 

No. 31;, quadruple feed 1 . H7to 118 

Deflector plate, how to adjust.10-11-44 

- Diaphragm, dampers in.23-25-28 

effect of increasing angle of. 28 

influence of, on draft.26-27 

method of adjustment.24-27-28 

most efficient. 27 

what it is for.9-24-26 

“Don’ts” for engineers and firemen.404 to 413 

Dome .••...209 

Double riveted joint.190-191 

Draft, how created in locomotives.5 to 8 

to regulate.8-9-46-47 

to measure force of.45-46 

in ash pans.36-39-40 

regulator.19 to 22 

Dry pipe.■.209-211-214 

Dudgeon tube expander.178-179 

Duties of fireman. .1-5-53-76-96-122-360-361 


E 

Education of firemen.400 to 404 

Exhaust. 5 to 23 

how it creates the draft.5-8-46 

jet and nozzle.28 to 32 

jet and nozzle, efficiency of. 30 

operation of .42-43-46 

nozzle, adjustable.13 to 15 

cleaning out. 23 
































INDEX 


V 


Exhaust—Continued. 

effect of contracting . 30 

most efficient form of. 31 

proper location of. 9 

various types of .13-17-19 

pipe, triple expansion . 34"36 

passages. 20 9 

stand. 3 2 

steam, superheated. 35 

Extension smoke box . 2 3“43 

Evaporation tests . 4 I_ 4 2 

F 

Feed water, how to put into a boiler.262 to 265 

strainer. 2 74 . 

Fire, condition it should be in at leaving time. 2 

proper depth of, to carry . 2-3-6 

tools needed on engine. l ~ 7 °~ 7 S 

Fire-box, construction of .160-161 

how braced. 60-161 

temperature of . I 3 I 

width of, for locomotives.334 to 336 

fireman’s duties .1-5-53-76-96-122-360-361 

education. 4 °° to 404 

outfit of tools. l ~ 7 °~ 7 S 

promotion .353 to 355 

Firing, rules.7-79-131-404 to 413-415 to 419 

Flue sheet, how braced.175-176 

Flues or tubes.176-177 

cleaning of . 340 - 34 1 

repairs on . 346 

Front end, Master Mechanics’ standard. 9 

what it is. 2 4 
































VI 


INDEX 


Fuei meetings.4x4 

Fuel oil, for locomotives.124 to 129 

Fusible plug.325 £0 329 

the American Locomotive Co.’s.328 


G 


Generation of steam. 

Grade of fuel for locomotives. 

Grates, area of opening. 

cleaning of . 

water, for hard coal. 


when to shake. 

Grate bars . 


how to save.. 


rocking . 

Gravitation, law of.... 



H 

Hancock boiler washer...311 to 313 

operation of.312-313 

pipe connections .312-313 

check valve.310-311 

inspirator. 301 to 310 

directions for connecting and operating. 306-8-9 

internal arrangement .304-305 

lifting apparatus.301-302 

regulation of . 303 

range of.302-303 


sectional view of 


•305 


sizes and capacities .303 

type composite.309-310 

Hayden mechanical stoker...gx to 96 

check valves of.90-92 

coal conveyor . 89-90 































INDEX 


vii 

Hayden mechanical stoker—Continued. 

conveyor engine. 92 

fire-box door . 94 

how it operates. 81 

hopper and valves .83-84 

operation of.••...90 to 93 

operating engine.84 to 87 

operating cylinder.86 to 89 

record of test. 95-96 

stoker valve .. • •.•.85 to 87 

valve operating engine. 88 

what it does . 81 

worm gear . 9° 

Hard coal, grates for burning it.— 50-51 

how to fire it. t> 

Heat . 132 

•experiments of Count Rumford.132-133 

Dr. Joule’s device for measuring it.i33-:i35 

kinetic theory of. I 3 2_I 33 

latent ...136 

mechanical energy of.133 

mechanical equivalent of.135 

specific .••. I 35 _I 3 ^ 

total of evaporation.139-140 

transmission through scale.361-362 

unit . I 35 

what it is. l 2> 2 

Horse power, definition of term. 139 

Hydrogen gas.• *.129-130 

heating value of. *39 

I 

Injector ......262 t° 3 or 

connections... 338 to 340 

































INDEX 


viii 

Injector—Continued'. 

directions for attaching.277-278-285 

directions for operating.273-286-294-297 

how and why it should work.266-267 

invention of.264 

Little Giant. 294 to 296 

Lunkenheimer. 298 to 301 

Metropolitan.283 to 288 

Monitor ..289 to 294 

Original Giffard ...264-265 

philosophy of its action.264-265-268 

Sellers Improved..268 to 283 

Simplex.296 to 298 

Inspirator, the Hancock.301 to 310 

J 

Joule’s device for measuring heat.133 to 135 

K 

Kunkle’s lock up pop valve.242-243 

L 

Labor saving devices for firemen ..53 to 102 

Latent heat.136 to 138 

in steam. 138 

Law of gravitation.143 

Liquid fuel . 80 

Locomotive tender.96 to 102 

Ryan and Johnson’s . 97 

Lubricator.102 to 122 

acting as a siphon.341-342 

Detroit four feed.117 to 120 

Detroit triple feed.113 to 120 

for engines using superheated steam...262 





























INDEX ix 

Lubricator—Continued. 

modern development of.102-103 

McCanna force feed.103 to 108 

Nathan’s bull eye.108 to 111 

why it acts.121-122 

Lunkenheimer injector.298 to 301 

design of.299 to 301 

sizes and capacities .301 

M 

McCanna force feed lubricator.103 to 108 

advantages of.108 

gravity check valve.106 

how connected. 103 to 106 

location of.• •.103 

oil pump and reservoir.107 

operation of.103-104 

McAfee water strainer..229 to 232 

Measuring the draft. 45 

Mechanical bell ringer.122 to 124 

Mechanical stoker for locomotives.59 to 61 

Hayden.81 to 96 

Victor.• ..61 to 81 

Metropolitan injector.283 to 288 

action of.283 to 285 

causes of stoppage.287-288 

how to use as a heater.287 

models H and 1 .285 

operation of.286-287 

pipe connections.285 

repairing . 288 

sectional view of.284 

table of capacities .286 

































X 


INDEX 


Monitor injector.289 to 2 94 

instructions for operating.293-294 

proper location of. 2 ^9 

range of work.<.••. 2 &9 

recent improvements.290 to 292 

sectional views.291-292 

N 

Nathan’s bull’s eye lubricator.108 to hi 

directions for applying.109-no 

directions for operation.no-in 

general features of. >••• 108-109 

triple sight feed lubricator.in 

directions for applying...111-112 

directions for operation.113-1 *4 

Netting, area of. 33"34 

function of.9-28-44 

mesh of. 34 ~ 44 _ 45 

Nitrogen gas.I 3 I-I 3 2 

Nozzle, adjustable.13 to 15 

bushings for. 13 

DeLancy . 1 5 " 1 7“ 1 9 

effect of contracting. 30 

influence of, on draft.— 10-n 

Master mechanic’s.28 to 32 

most efficient form of. 31 

single and double. 12-13 

O 

Obstructions to draft....43-45 

Oil fuel, for locomotives..124 to 129 

admission of air in burning.127-128 

how to operate an oil burner.126-127 































INDEX 


XI 


Oil fuel—Continued. 

location of burner.127 

method of heating.125-126 

proper method of handling.124-125 

the atomizer.126 to 128 

P 

Perforated steel plate, on diaphragm.28-29 

arguments for and against.34 

Petticoat pipe, dimensions of. 33 

importance of.23-33 

most efficient. 33 

proper location of. ...10 to 12-33 

Pop valve, American muffled.237 

Crane’s .239 to 242 

Crosby. 233 to 237 

importance of .232 

Kunkle lock up.242-243 

Pressure in exhaust jet. 30 

Promotion for firemen.• •... .353 to 355 

Prosser tube expander.177-178 

Q 

Quadruple riveted joint.193 to 195 

Quintuple riveted joint.193 

Questions, numbers 1 to 163.151 to 159 

164 to 221.....205 to 208 

222 to 340.317 to 324 

R 

Radial stays, for boilers.171 

defects of system .172-173 



























INDEX 


xii 

Riveted joints, calculations of efficiencies.188 to 195 

efficiencies and proportions.183-184-185 

proportions of double riveted.187 

single riveted . 

triple riveted .188 

Rue Little Giant injector.294 to 296 

directions for operating .295-296 

sizes and capacities.295 

Rules for firemen. 4 _ 4°4 to 4 l 3 

S 

Samson bell ringer.122 to 124 

Schenectady super heater.255 

details of construction.258 to 260 

heating surface (sq. ft.).260-261 

new features of.257 

service tests.261 

vertical section .256 

Sellers injector.268 to 283 

action of.269-270 

cause for stoppage...278 to 283 

directions for attaching.277-278 

directions for operating.273-275 

emergency methods, for handling.278 to 283 

how to use as a heater.271 

how to remove the tubes.280 

list of parts (class M).276 

(class N).275 

range of work.271-272 

sectional view of.270-271 

tables of capacities and sizes.273 

Sensible heat, nature of.136 
































INDEX 


xiii 

Simplex injector.296 to 298 

directions for operating.297-298 

sizes and capacities.298 

Single riveted joints, proportions and efficiencies_186 

Smith triple expansion exhaust pipe.34 to 36 

adaptability of .36 

advantages claimed for it.35-36 

distinguishing features .34-35 

Smoke, prevention of. 75 

Smoke box front, Penna. R’y Co.’s.47 to 49 

Soft coal burning.367 to 395 

how to fire it.6-415 to 419 

Specific heat 1 ... 1 35“ 136 

Stack, dimensions and formulae for. 32 

Stays, crow foot.195 

diagonal for head. 175 

factor of safety for.198 to 202 

gussett .175 

various designs of. 196 

Stay bolts, function of.160-161 

Shaffer’s improved.163 to 166 

stresses in.167 to 169 

Tate flexible . 161-162 

why they fail.166-167 

Staying flat surfaces.195-196 

Steam .• • 142 

as a heat vehicle.151 

benefits of super heating.244-245-253 

density of .145 

dry . I 44 -I 5 I 

physical properties of.146 to 150 

process of generation.143-144 

saturated .144 


































XIV 


INDEX 


Steam—Continued. 

superheated .• ..i 44 ' 2 45' 2 53 

temperature of . . 

total heat of.I 44 _I 45 

velocity of. 35 1 to 353 

volume of . *45 

relative to water of formation.145-146 

wet . I 44 

Steam gauges .. ♦ ..219 to 225 

construction of .220 to 225 

action of, explained.219-220 

Steam passages' to cylinders.216-217 

to exhaust pipes.218-219 

Steam pipes.. 2I 4 to 216 

joints for. 2I 5 

Stoker, mechanical for locomotives.59 to 61-79 to 81 

Superheating steam .244-245 

advantages and disadvantages..251 to 254 

incidental considerations .254-255 

probable success of.250 to 253 

T 

Temperature, of boiling water at various pressures. .142 

of cylinder walls (probable).261 

of escaping gases.131 

of fire-box.13 1 

of superheated steam.261 

Tensile strength (T. S.).179 to 181 

definition of term.179 

test for. 180-181 

Thermo dynamics . 133 

Things to be considered in making steam,. 5 

to be remembered ....273 to 275 






























INDEX 


XV 


Thom check valve.313 to 316 

description of.315-316 

sectional view of. .314 

Throttle valve, description and views of.211 to 213 

and dry pipe.209 

Tolz locomotive superheater.244 to 246 

action of .• •.247-248 

advantages of .248 

design and construction.248 to 250 

Total heat of evaporation.139-140 

Triple riveted butt joint.191-192 

Tubes, factor controlling area of.; . 43 

Types of locomotive boilers.160-174-203 to 205 

V 

Vacuum, in ash-pan.39-40 

in front end.^9 - 33-39 

in stack .'. • •. 29 

Velocity, of exhaust jet. 30 

of fire gases. .360 

of steam .351 to 353 

Victor stoker, for locomotives.61 to 81 

a labor saver.. ♦ 62 

accidents to.77 to 79 

action of rotary valve. 69 

advantages claimed for it.62 to 64 

care of, at terminals. 76-77 

description of.65 to 68 

directions for starting.70-71 

dimensions of .• •.64 

economy of using. 63-64 

function of choke plug. 68 

how to operate..69-72-73-75 


































XVI 


INDEX 




Victor stoker—Continued. 

regulation of choke plug. 7 I_ 7 2 

repairs . .78-79 


w 


Water, boiling point, at various temperatures.142 


composition of .I 4 0_ 365 

evaporation per pound of coal.34 2 

proper method of feeding to boiler.262 to 265 

scale forming ingredients in it.140-365 to 367 

to be at proper height in boiler.1-228 

weight of, at various temperatures.142 

compared with atmosphere.14 1 

strainer for tank.229 to 232-274 

Water glass and gauge cocks, importance of.225 

how to connect.226 to 228 

proper length of.228-363 to 365 
















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